{"id":3474,"date":"2013-01-25T16:53:35","date_gmt":"2013-01-25T08:53:35","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/defenselawyer.com.cn\/?p=3474"},"modified":"2013-01-25T16:53:35","modified_gmt":"2013-01-25T08:53:35","slug":"%e5%9b%bd%e9%99%85%e5%be%8b%e5%b8%88%e5%8d%8f%e4%bc%9a%e5%8f%91%e8%a1%a8%e3%80%8a%e4%b8%ad%e5%9b%bd%e6%b3%95%e5%be%8b%e8%81%8c%e4%b8%9a%e7%8a%b6%e5%86%b5%e7%a0%94%e7%a9%b6%e6%8a%a5%e5%91%8a%e3%80%8b","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"http:\/\/www.xinghuanzhong.com.cn\/?p=3474","title":{"rendered":"\u56fd\u9645\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\u53d1\u8868\u300a\u4e2d\u56fd\u6cd5\u5f8b\u804c\u4e1a\u72b6\u51b5\u7814\u7a76\u62a5\u544a\u300b(\u4e0a)"},"content":{"rendered":"

\t\t\t\t <\/p>\n

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\"\u56fd\u9645\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\u53d1\u8868\u300a\u4e2d\u56fd\u6cd5\u5f8b\u804c\u4e1a\u72b6\u51b5\u7814\u7a76\u62a5\u544a\u300b(\u4e0a)\"<\/a><\/p>\n

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\"\u56fd\u9645\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\u53d1\u8868\u300a\u4e2d\u56fd\u6cd5\u5f8b\u804c\u4e1a\u72b6\u51b5\u7814\u7a76\u62a5\u544a\u300b(\u4e0a)\"<\/a><\/p>\n

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\"\u56fd\u9645\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\u53d1\u8868\u300a\u4e2d\u56fd\u6cd5\u5f8b\u804c\u4e1a\u72b6\u51b5\u7814\u7a76\u62a5\u544a\u300b(\u4e0a)\"<\/a><\/p>\n

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\u56fd\u9645\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\uff08IBA\uff09\u53d1\u8868<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

\u300a\u4e2d\u56fd\u6cd5\u5f8b\u804c\u4e1a\u72b6\u51b5\u7814\u7a76\u62a5\u544a\u300b<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

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[\u9648\u6709\u897f\u6309\u4e8e\u4f26\u6566\u653f\u6cbb\u7ecf\u6d4e\u5b66\u9662]<\/strong>\u672c\u5468\uff0c\u56fd\u9645\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\u53d1\u8868\u4e86\u6211\u548c\u56fd\u9645\u5f8b\u534f\u9a7b\u4e2d\u56fd12\u5e74\u7684\u610f\u5927\u5229\u5f8b\u5e08\u9a6c\u53ef\u5148\u751f\u4e00\u8d77\u7814\u7a76\u5b8c\u6210\u7684\u300a\u53cc\u57ce\u8bb0\u2014\u2014\u4e2d\u56fd\u6cd5\u5f8b\u804c\u4e1a\u72b6\u51b5\u7814\u7a76\u62a5\u544a\u300b\u3002\u6211\u7684\u5b66\u751f\u3001\u4e2d\u56fd\u4eba\u6c11\u5927\u5b66\u5f8b\u5e08\u5b66\u9662\u7684\u6cd5\u5f8b\u7855\u58eb\u7814\u7a76\u751f\u5218\u82b8\uff0c\u53c2\u4e0e\u4e86\u4e2d\u82f1\u6587\u4e92\u8bd1\u548c\u6821\u5bf9\u5de5\u4f5c\u3002\u8fd9\u662f\u4e00\u4efd\u9762\u5411\u56fd\u9645\u793e\u4f1a\uff0c\u4ecb\u7ecd\u4e2d\u56fd\u6cd5\u5f8b\u804c\u4e1a\u4e3b\u8981\u662f\u4e2d\u56fd\u5f8b\u5e08\u4e1a\u73b0\u72b6\uff0c\u548c\u9762\u4e34\u7684\u771f\u5b9e\u573a\u666f\u7684\u62a5\u544a\u3002\u4ecb\u7ecd\u7684\u60c5\u51b5\u5c1a\u4e0d\u5b8c\u6574\u5168\u9762\uff0c\u4f46\u662f\u662f\u4e00\u4efd\u6bd4\u8f83\u771f\u5b9e\u7684\u62a5\u544a\u3002\u65b0\u300a\u5211\u4e8b\u8bc9\u8bbc\u6cd5\u300b\u5b9e\u65bd\u7b49\u76f8\u5173\u65b0\u7684\u8fdb\u5c55\uff0c\u5c1a\u6709\u5f85\u89c2\u5bdf\uff0c\u4ee5\u540e\u8865\u5145\u3002<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

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\u53cc\u57ce\u8bb0<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

\u4e2d\u56fd\u6cd5\u5f8b\u804c\u4e1a\u72b6\u51b5\u62a5\u544a<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

A tale of two cities<\/strong> <\/span><\/p>\n

The legal profession in China<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

\u53d1\u5e03\u4eba\uff1a\u56fd\u9645\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\uff0c\u4f26\u6566<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

By IBA<\/span><\/p>\n

\u7814\u7a76\u4f5c\u8005\uff1a<\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

By Marco Marazzi and<\/span> Chen Youxi<\/strong> <\/span><\/p>\n

[\u56fd\u9645\u5f8b\u534f\u610f\u5927\u5229\u5f8b\u5e08]Marco Marazzi<\/strong><\/span> [\u4e2d\u56fd\u5f8b\u5e08]\u9648\u6709\u897f<\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

<\/span> [\u7814\u7a76\u52a9\u7406]\uff1a\u4e2d\u56fd\u4eba\u6c11\u5927\u5b66\u5f8b\u5e08\u5b66\u9662\u6cd5\u5f8b\u7855\u58eb\u7814\u7a76\u751f \u5218\u82b8<\/span><\/strong><\/span><\/p>\n

<\/p>\n

This paper will analyze the current situation of the legal profession in China, the difficulties faced by lawyers and the prospects for improvement. <\/span><\/p>\n

The paper will argue that while the legal profession in China is acquiring increasing importance and strength, with the number of lawyers now exceeding 230,000 (as opposed to only over\u00a0 2000 30 years ago), lawyers\u2019 independence remains an aspiration more than a reality: depending on their area of practice, lawyers can suffer great constraints in what they can realistically achieve and in the exercise of their rights. This is gradually leading to a bifurcation within the system, between lawyers dealing mostly with civil and commercial matters who benefit from an increasing ability to exercise their rights and from growing financial rewards, and lawyers who deal with more sensitive administrative and criminal cases, who face often insurmountable challenges and as consequence tend to be much less successful financially and enjoy a much lower status within the legal profession as a whole.<\/span><\/p>\n

This has led to the outcome that the brightest and more capable lawyers often tend to refrain from handling precisely those types of cases where a lawyer can make a difference in the protection of fundamental human rights.<\/span><\/p>\n

\u672c\u6587\u5c06\u5206\u6790\u4e2d\u56fd\u6cd5\u5f8b\u804c\u4e1a\u7684\u73b0\u72b6\u548c\u5f8b\u5e08\u6240\u9762\u4e34\u7684\u56f0\u96be\uff0c\u4ee5\u53ca\u63a2\u8ba8\u5176\u53d1\u5c55\u524d\u666f\u3002\u6587\u4e2d\u5c06\u4f1a\u8ba8\u8bba\u5230\u968f\u7740\u4e2d\u56fd\u5f8b\u5e08\u6570\u91cf\u7684\u4e0d\u65ad\u589e\u957f\uff08\u5982\u4eca\u5df2\u8d85\u8fc723\u4e07\uff0c\u4e0e30\u5e74\u524d\u53ea\u67092\u5343\u591a\u4eba\u7684\u60c5\u51b5\u622a\u7136\u76f8\u53cd\uff09\uff0c\u6cd5\u5f8b\u804c\u4e1a\u5728\u4e2d\u56fd\u65e5\u76ca\u5f3a\u5927\u5e76\u4e14\u8d8a\u6765\u8d8a\u53d7\u91cd\u89c6\uff0c\u4f46\u662f\uff0c\u5f8b\u5e08\u7684\u72ec\u7acb\u6027\u4ecd\u7136\u53ea\u662f\u4e00\u4e2a\u61a7\u61ac\u800c\u975e\u73b0\u5b9e\uff1a\u4f9d\u636e\u5f8b\u5e08\u804c\u4e1a\u9886\u57df\u7684\u4e0d\u540c\uff0c\u6709\u4e9b\u5f8b\u5e08\u5b9e\u9645\u80fd\u591f\u505a\u7684\u4e8b\u548c\u81ea\u8eab\u6743\u5229\u7684\u5b9e\u73b0\u4f1a\u53d7\u5230\u6781\u5927\u7684\u9650\u5236\u3002\u8fd9\u79cd\u60c5\u51b5\u9010\u6e10\u5bfc\u81f4\u4e86\u5f8b\u5e08\u4f53\u7cfb\u5185\u90e8\u7684\u5206\u5316\uff1a\u4e3b\u8981\u4ece\u4e8b\u6c11\u5546\u6cd5\u5f8b\u4e1a\u52a1\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\uff0c\u6709\u7740\u4e0d\u65ad\u589e\u5f3a\u7684\u8df5\u884c\u81ea\u5df1\u6743\u5229\u7684\u80fd\u529b\u5e76\u4e14\u4eab\u53d7\u7740\u4e0d\u65ad\u63d0\u9ad8\u7684\u7269\u8d28\u62a5\u916c\uff1b\u800c\u90a3\u4e9b\u5904\u7406\u66f4\u52a0\u654f\u611f\u7684\u884c\u653f\u8bc9\u8bbc\u4e1a\u52a1\u548c\u5211\u4e8b\u6cd5\u5f8b\u4e1a\u52a1\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\uff0c\u5219\u65f6\u5e38\u9762\u4e34\u7740\u96be\u4ee5\u5e94\u4ed8\u7684\u56f0\u96be\uff0c\u548c\u76f8\u6bd4\u4e4b\u4e0b\u4e0d\u592a\u53ef\u89c2\u7684\u5229\u76ca\u6536\u5165\uff0c\u5e76\u4e14\u5728\u6574\u4e2a\u884c\u4e1a\u4e4b\u4e2d\u5904\u4e8e\u8f83\u4f4e\u7684\u5730\u4f4d\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

\u8fd9\u6837\u7684\u73b0\u72b6\u76f4\u63a5\u5bfc\u81f4\u4e86\u4e00\u4e2a\u7ed3\u679c\uff1a\u90a3\u4e9b\u6700\u806a\u660e\u548c\u66f4\u6709\u80fd\u529b\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\u7ecf\u5e38\u6291\u5236\u4f4f\u81ea\u5df1\uff0c\u4e0d\u53bb\u6d89\u8db3\u7ef4\u62a4\u57fa\u672c\u4eba\u8eab\u6743\u5229\u7684\u6cd5\u5f8b\u9886\u57df\uff0c\u800c\u6b63\u662f\u5728\u8fd9\u4e9b\u9886\u57df\uff0c\u5f8b\u5e08\u5f80\u5f80\u80fd\u53d1\u6325\u5f88\u5927\u7684\u4f5c\u7528\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

Background<\/span><\/b><\/p>\n

In China which is under the administration of the Communist Party, the earliest birth of legal defensive system can be traced back to the period of the revolutionary bases. In 1932, the defensive system had already been adopted inside the base areas, and we can see the specific cues in the Interim Organizations and Regulations of the Judge Department enacted by the central executive committee of Chinese Republic of Soviet. It stated that with the approval of the court, the defendant can appoint a representative to defend in the court in order to protect his own benefits. <\/span><\/p>\n

Following the establishment of the People\u2019s Republic of China in 1949, the then existing legal profession suffered several significant setbacks. And with the abolition of the Six Laws Book legal systems adopted by the former Nationalist<\/ins> G<\/ins>overnment, many legal professions were listed as the “reactionary and old laws members”and were cleaned in that way. Then, lawyers almost vanished. <\/span><\/p>\n

\u80cc\u666f<\/b><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

<\/b> \u4e2d\u56fd\u5171\u4ea7\u515a\u9886\u5bfc\u7684\u4e2d\u56fd\uff0c\u6cd5\u5f8b\u8fa9\u62a4\u5236\u5ea6\u7684\u6700\u65e9\u53d1\u7aef\uff0c\u662f\u6839\u636e\u5730\u65f6\u671f\u3002\u65e9\u57281932\u5e74<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span>\u4e2d\u56fd\u5171\u4ea7\u515a<\/span><\/a>\u9886\u5bfc<\/span><\/a>\u7684\u9769\u547d<\/span>\u6839\u636e\u5730<\/span><\/a>\u5185\u4fbf\u5f00\u59cb\u5b9e\u884c\u8fa9\u62a4\u5236\u5ea6\u3002\u4e2d\u534e<\/span>\u82cf\u7ef4\u57c3<\/span><\/a>\u4e2d\u592e\u6267\u884c\u59d4\u5458\u4f1a\u9881\u5e03\u7684\u300a\u88c1\u5224\u90e8\u6682\u884c<\/span>\u7ec4\u7ec7<\/span><\/a>\u53ca\u88c1\u5224\u6761\u4f8b\u300b\u89c4\u5b9a\u201c\u88ab\u544a\u4eba\u4e3a\u672c\u8eab\u7684<\/span>\u5229\u76ca<\/span><\/a>\uff0c\u53ef\u6d3e\u4ee3\u8868\u51fa\u5ead\u8fa9\u62a4\uff0c\u4f46\u987b\u5f97\u6cd5\u5ead\u7684\u8bb8\u53ef\u201d\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

1949\u5e74\u4e2d\u534e\u4eba\u6c11\u5171\u548c\u56fd\u6210\u7acb\u4e4b\u540e\uff0c\u90a3\u65f6\u5b58\u5728\u7684\u6cd5\u5f8b\u804c\u4e1a\u906d\u53d7\u4e86\u5de8\u5927\u7684\u632b\u6298\u3002\u968f\u7740\u5e9f\u6b62\u539f\u56fd\u6c11\u653f\u5e9c\u7684\u201c\u516d\u6cd5\u5168\u4e66\u201d\u7b49\u6cd5\u5f8b\u4f53\u7cfb\uff0c\u5bf9\u6cd5\u5f8b\u804c\u4e1a\u4eba\u5458\u4e5f\u5217\u4e3a\u201c\u53cd\u52a8\u65e7\u6cd5\u4eba\u5458\u201d\u8fdb\u884c\u6e05\u6d17\u3002\u5f8b\u5e08\u804c\u4e1a\u57fa\u672c\u6d88\u5931\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

First, although the General Rules of the Organization of the People’s Court regulated that the defendant should be guaranteed to have the right to defend and appoint others to defend for him, in December 1950, the Ministry of Justice issued the \u201cCircular concerning Banning \u201cEvil-Minded Lawyers\u201d and Pettifoggers\u201d , which explicitly outlawed bar associations and other \u201clawyering\u201d activities existing during the period of the Nationalist Government. The criminal defendant was trialed in a mass revolutionary way without the defence from neither himself nor the lawyer. \u00a0 <\/span><\/p>\n

The very existence of lawyers was not recognized until the enactment of the first \u201cConstitution of the People\u2019s Republic of China\u201d in 1954, which stated clearly in the article 76: the cases which are heard by the court should be openly operated except some special situations stated by the<\/ins> law, and\u00a0 the accused has the right to defense.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

\u9996\u5148\uff0c\u867d\u71361950\u5e74\u300a\u4eba\u6c11\u6cd5\u5ead\u7ec4\u7ec7\u901a\u5219\u300b\u89c4\u5b9a\u4e86\u201c\u5e94\u4fdd\u969c\u88ab\u544a\u6709\u8fa9\u62a4\u53ca\u8bf7\u4eba\u8fa9\u62a4\u7684<\/span>\u6743\u5229<\/span><\/a>\u201d\u30021950\u5e7410\u6708\uff0c\u53f8\u6cd5\u90e8\u5219\u4e0b\u53d1\u4e86\u6709\u5173\u7981\u6b62\u201c\u9ed1\u5f8b\u5e08\u548c\u8bbc\u68cd\u201d\u7684\u901a\u77e5\uff0c\u8fd9\u4e00\u4e3e\u63aa\u660e\u786e\u5730\u5c06\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\u6392\u9664\u5728\u6cd5\u5f8b\u4fdd\u62a4\u4e4b\u5916\uff0c\u540c\u65f6\u4e5f\u6392\u9664\u4e86\u5176\u4ed6\u56fd\u6c11\u653f\u5e9c\u65f6\u671f\u5b58\u5728\u7684\u201c\u4ee5\u5f8b\u5e08\u4e4b\u540d\u201d\u7684\u4e00\u5207\u6d3b\u52a8\u3002\u5211\u4e8b\u88ab\u544a\u88ab\u4ee5\u7fa4\u4f17\u9769\u547d\u7684\u65b9\u5f0f\u5ba1\u5224\uff0c\u4e0d\u80fd\u8fdb\u884c\u81ea\u6211\u8fa9\u62a4\u548c\u6ca1\u6709\u5f8b\u5e08\u8fa9\u62a4\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

\u76f4\u52301954\u5e74\u65b0\u4e2d\u56fd\u7b2c\u4e00\u90e8\u300a\u4e2d\u534e\u4eba\u6c11\u5171\u548c\u56fd\u5baa\u6cd5\u300b\u9881\u5e03\u540e\u624d\u5f97\u5230\u627f\u8ba4\uff0c\u5728\u8fd9\u90e8\u300a\u5baa\u6cd5\u300b\u7b2c\u4e03\u5341\u516d\u6761\u89c4\u5b9a\uff1a\u4eba\u6c11\u6cd5\u9662\u5ba1\u7406\u6848\u4ef6\uff0c\u9664\u6cd5\u5f8b\u89c4\u5b9a\u7684\u7279\u522b\u60c5\u51b5\u5916\uff0c\u4e00\u5f8b\u516c\u5f00\u8fdb\u884c\u3002\u88ab\u544a\u4eba\u6709\u6743\u83b7\u5f97\u8fa9\u62a4\u3002<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

In 1956, the Ministry of Justice issued the first Report for Instructions Concerning the Establishment of Lawyers, creating the first professional lawyer system since the foundation of the People\u2019s Republic. And the Chinese government cultivated his own lawyers to serve his new regime, among whom the lawyers were the students who came back from the Soviet Union and the ones who received law education during the period of Nationalist <\/ins> G<\/ins>overnment. However, the \u201canti-rightist\u201d campaign initiated in 1957 by Mao Zedong identified most of the lawyers(the total number of the lawyer at that time was over 2000, nearly half of whom)as \u201crightists\u201d and therefore subjects of persecution. <\/span><\/p>\n

During the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976), which led to a period of almost total lawlessness in the administration of justice, law faculties were closed, lawyers qualifications exams were suspended and law firms and lawyers associations practically ceased to exist. <\/span><\/p>\n

Following Mao\u2019s death in 1976, the trial of the Gang of Four and the ascent to power of Deng Xiaoping, China adopted a new Criminal Procedure Law re-affir ming the right to defense of the accused, then the lawyer system began to retrieve. This right was subsequently recognized also in the new Constitution adopted in 1982. <\/span><\/p>\n

1956\u5e74\uff0c\u53f8\u6cd5\u90e8\u53d1\u5e03\u4e86\u7b2c\u4e00\u4efd\u6709\u5173\u6210\u7acb\u5f8b\u5e08\u5236\u5ea6\u7684\u6307\u793a\u6587\u4ef6\uff0c\u8fd9\u4e00\u4e3e\u63aa\u521b\u7acb\u4e86\u65b0\u4e2d\u56fd\u6210\u7acb\u4ee5\u6765\u7684\u7b2c\u4e00\u4e2a\u6267\u4e1a\u5f8b\u5e08\u5236\u5ea6\u3002\u4e2d\u56fd\u653f\u5e9c\u57f9\u517b\u81ea\u5df1\u7684\u65b0\u653f\u6743\u5f8b\u5e08\uff0c\u4e3b\u8981\u662f\u7559\u5b66\u82cf\u8054\u56de\u56fd\u548c\u4ece\u56fd\u6c11\u653f\u5e9c\u65f6\u671f\u83b7\u5f97\u8fc7\u6cd5\u5b66\u6559\u80b2\u7684\u4eba\u5145\u4efb\u3002\u7136\u800c\uff0c1957\u5e74\uff0c\u6bdb\u6cfd\u4e1c\u53d1\u8d77\u4e86\u53cd\u53f3\u6d3e\u8fd0\u52a8\u3002\u5728\u8fd9\u573a\u8fd0\u52a8\u4e2d\uff0c\u603b\u6570\u4e8c\u5343\u591a\u7684\u4e2d\u56fd\u5f8b\u5e08\uff0c\u6709\u4e00\u534a\u4ee5\u4e0a\u90fd\u88ab\u6253\u6210\u53f3\u6d3e\u5e76\u906d\u5230\u8feb\u5bb3\u30021966\u5e74\u81f31976\u5e74\u7684\u6587\u5316\u5927\u9769\u547d\u671f\u95f4\uff0c\u8fd9\u662f\u4e00\u4e2a\u5728\u53f8\u6cd5\u519b\u7ba1\u5316\u3001\u884c\u653f\u5316\u73af\u5883\u4e0b\uff0c\u51e0\u4e4e\u65e0\u6cd5\u6cbb\u7684\u65f6\u671f\uff0c\u6cd5\u5f8b\u5b66\u9662\u88ab\u5173\u95ed\uff0c\u5f8b\u5e08\u804c\u4e1a\u8d44\u683c\u8003\u8bd5\u505c\u6b62\uff0c\u5f8b\u5e08\u4e8b\u52a1\u6240\u548c\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\u3001\u5f8b\u5e08\u6267\u4e1a\u5b9e\u9645\u4e0a\u5df2\u7ecf\u4e0d\u590d\u5b58\u5728\u30021976\u5e74\u6bdb\u6cfd\u4e1c\u901d\u4e16\u4e4b\u540e\uff0c\u968f\u7740\u56db\u4eba\u5e2e\u7684\u5ba1\u5224\u548c\u9093\u5c0f\u5e73\u638c\u6743\uff0c\u4e2d\u56fd\u9881\u5e03\u4e86\u65b0\u7684\u5211\u4e8b\u8bc9\u8bbc\u6cd5\uff0c\u91cd\u7533\u88ab\u544a\u7684\u8fa9\u62a4\u6743\uff0c\u4e2d\u56fd\u5f8b\u5e08\u5236\u5ea6\u5f00\u59cb\u6062\u590d\uff0c\u5728\u968f\u540e\u76841982\u5e74\u65b0\u5baa\u6cd5\u4e2d\u4e5f\u5f97\u5230\u4e86\u786e\u8ba4\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

The Criminal Procedure Law enacted in 1979 used an exclusive chapter to regulate the defense. It stated that the accused can ask for legal help since the investigation started. And during the case was heard, the accused not only had the right to defend by himself, this meant that he can argue for himself; had the right to apply for collecting evidence and investigation; had the right to make a final statement and appeal to the case, but also he can commit a lawyer to defend. The law also stated that the following 3 kinds can be appointed as a defender: (1) lawyer; (2\uff09a civilian who is recommended by the accused ‘s work place or the mass organization, or permitted by the court; (3) the close relatives or custodian of the accused. The responsibility of the defender is to offer the materials and suggestions based on the facts and law that can prove the accused not guilty, misdemeanor or can reduce or avoid the criminal responsibility, and to protect the legitimate rights and interests of the accused. The lawyer can consult the materials concerning the case, meet with the accused and communicate with him through letters. All of this can be done by other defenders through the permission of the court. Apart from the entrusted defense, in the cases with the attendance of the prosecutor, if the accused doesn’t have a defender, the court can appoint a defender for him. And if the accused is deaf, mute or a juvenile without a defender, the court also can appoint one for him. During the trial, if the accused thinks the defender who was entrusted by himself or appointed by the court couldn’t protect his legitimate rights, he can either refuse the defender to continue defending for him or entrust others to defend for him.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1979\u5e74\u516c\u5e03\u7684\u300a\u4e2d\u534e\u4eba\u6c11\u5171\u548c\u56fd\u5211\u4e8b\u8bc9\u8bbc\u6cd5\u300b\u5bf9\u8fa9\u62a4\u4f5c\u4e86\u4e13\u7ae0\u89c4\u5b9a\u3002\u88ab\u544a\u4eba\u8fa9\u62a4\u6743\u4ece\u4fa6\u67e5\u5f00\u59cb\u6cd5\u5f8b\u5e2e\u52a9\uff0c\u88ab\u544a\u4eba\u5728\u6cd5\u5ead\u5ba1\u7406\u9636\u6bb5\u4e0d\u4ec5\u81ea\u5df1\u6709\u6743\u8fa9\u62a4\uff0c\u5373\u6709\u6743\u8fdb\u884c\u8fa9\u89e3\uff0c\u6709\u6743\u7533\u8bf7\u8c03\u53d6\u8bc1\u636e\uff0c\u6709\u6743\u505a\u6700\u540e\u9648\u8ff0\uff0c\u6709\u6743\u5bf9\u88c1\u5224\u63d0\u51fa\u4e0a\u8bc9\u6216\u7533\u8bc9\u7b49\uff0c\u8fd8\u53ef\u4ee5\u59d4\u6258\u8fa9\u62a4\u4eba\u8fdb\u884c\u8fa9\u62a4\u3002\u8fa9\u62a4\u4eba\u6709\u4ee5\u4e0b3\u79cd\uff1a\u2460\u5f8b\u5e08;\u2461\u4eba\u6c11\u56e2\u4f53\u6216\u8005\u88ab\u544a\u4eba\u6240\u5728\u5355\u4f4d\u63a8\u8350\u7684\uff0c\u6216\u8005\u7ecf\u4eba\u6c11\u6cd5\u9662\u8bb8\u53ef\u7684\u516c\u6c11\uff1b\u2462\u88ab\u544a\u4eba\u7684\u8fd1<\/span>\u4eb2\u5c5e<\/span><\/a>\u3001\u76d1\u62a4\u4eba\u3002\u8fa9\u62a4\u4eba\u7684\u8d23\u4efb\u662f\u6839\u636e\u4e8b\u5b9e\u548c\u6cd5\u5f8b\u63d0\u51fa<\/span>\u8bc1\u660e<\/span><\/a>\u88ab\u544a\u4eba\u65e0\u7f6a\u3001\u7f6a\u8f7b\u6216\u8005\u51cf\u8f7b\u3001\u514d\u9664\u5176<\/span>\u5211\u4e8b\u8d23\u4efb<\/span><\/a>\u7684\u6750\u6599\u548c\u610f\u89c1\uff0c\u7ef4\u62a4\u88ab\u544a\u4eba\u7684\u5408\u6cd5<\/span>\u6743\u76ca<\/span><\/a>\u3002\u8fa9\u62a4\u5f8b\u5e08\u53ef\u4ee5\u67e5\u9605\u672c\u6848\u6750\u6599,\u4e86\u89e3\u6848\u60c5,\u53ef\u4ee5\u540c\u5728\u62bc\u7684\u88ab\u544a\u4eba\u4f1a\u89c1\u548c<\/span>\u901a\u4fe1<\/span><\/a>\u3002\u5176\u4ed6\u7684\u8fa9\u62a4\u4eba\u7ecf\u8fc7\u4eba\u6c11\u6cd5\u9662\u8bb8\u53ef\uff0c\u4e5f\u53ef\u4ee5\u4e86\u89e3\u6848\u60c5\uff0c\u540c\u5728\u62bc\u7684\u88ab\u544a\u4eba\u4f1a\u89c1\u548c\u901a\u4fe1\u3002\u9664\u59d4\u6258\u8fa9\u62a4\u5916\uff0c\u516c\u8bc9\u4eba\u51fa\u5ead\u516c\u8bc9\u7684\u6848\u4ef6\uff0c\u88ab\u544a\u4eba\u6ca1\u6709\u59d4\u6258\u8fa9\u62a4\u4eba\u7684\uff0c\u4eba\u6c11\u6cd5\u9662\u53ef\u4ee5\u4e3a\u4ed6\u6307\u5b9a\u8fa9\u62a4\u4eba\u3002\u88ab\u544a\u4eba\u662f\u804b\u3001\u54d1\u6216\u8005\u672a\u6210\u5e74\u4eba\u800c\u6ca1\u6709\u59d4\u6258\u8fa9\u62a4\u4eba\u7684\uff0c\u4eba\u6c11\u6cd5\u9662\u5e94\u5f53\u4e3a\u4ed6\u6307\u5b9a\u8fa9\u62a4\u4eba\u3002\u5728\u5ba1\u5224\u8fc7\u7a0b\u4e2d\uff0c\u88ab\u544a\u4eba\u5bf9\u4e8e\u81ea\u5df1\u59d4\u6258\u7684\u8fa9\u62a4\u4eba\u6216\u8005\u4eba\u6c11\u6cd5\u9662\u4e3a\u4ed6\u6307\u5b9a\u7684\u8fa9\u62a4\u4eba\uff0c\u5982\u8ba4\u4e3a\u4e0d\u80fd\u7ef4\u62a4\u4ed6\u7684\u5408\u6cd5\u6743\u76ca\u65f6\uff0c\u53ef\u4ee5\u62d2\u7edd\u8be5\u8fa9\u62a4\u4eba\u7ee7\u7eed\u4e3a\u4ed6\u8fa9\u62a4\uff0c\u4e5f\u53ef\u4ee5\u53e6\u5916\u59d4\u6258\u8fa9\u62a4\u4eba\u8fdb\u884c\u8fa9\u62a4\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

In 1980, China adopted the Interim Regulations on Lawyers of the People\u2019s Republic of China, followed in 1981 and 1986 by other regulations issued by the Supreme People\u2019s Court<\/span>[1]<\/span><\/a>, the Supreme People\u2019s Procuratorate and the Ministry of Public Security. This legislation formed for over a decade the backbone of the legal framework regulating the establishment of law firms and the participation of lawyers in court proceedings. Following the re-opening of law faculties at the beginning of the 80s, the first lawyers qualifications exams were held again in 1986, the same year when the All China Lawyers Association was founded. Therefore, one may say that the legal profession in the \u201cnew\u201d China (i.e. the China emerging from Mao\u2019s totalitarian period) is barely 30 years old.<\/span><\/p>\n

Under the 1980 \u201cInterim Regulations\u201d , lawyers were defined as \u201cworkers of the state\u201d who \u201crepresented the state\u201d and \u201cprotected the interests of the state\u201d. In other words, lawyers were seen as civil servants( they were salaried by the state and not like the free professions) and a component of the overall administration of justice and were expected to assist in the enforcement of laws and regulations and to uphold the cause of socialism<\/span>[2]<\/span><\/a>. Accordingly, virtually all law firms and legal advisory offices created in the decade following the re-opening of law faculties were in a way or another affiliated to government departments or entities.<\/span><\/p>\n

1980\u5e74\uff0c\u4e2d\u56fd\u51fa\u53f0\u4e86\u300a\u4e2d\u534e\u4eba\u6c11\u5171\u548c\u56fd\u5f8b\u5e08\u6682\u884c\u6761\u4f8b\u300b\uff0c\u968f\u540e\uff0c1981\u5e74\u548c1986\u5e74\u6700\u9ad8\u4eba\u6c11\u6cd5\u9662<\/span>[3]<\/span><\/a>\uff0c\u6700\u9ad8\u4eba\u6c11\u68c0\u5bdf\u9662\u548c\u516c\u5b89\u90e8\u76f8\u7ee7\u51fa\u53f0\u4e86\u5176\u4ed6\u7684\u89c4\u5b9a\u3002\u8fd9\u4e00\u7cfb\u5217\u89c4\u5b9a\u7684\u51fa\u53f0\u4e3a\u63a5\u4e0b\u6765\u8fd1\u5341\u5e74\u7684\u5f8b\u6240\u6210\u7acb\u548c\u5f8b\u5e08\u53c2\u4e0e\u5ead\u5ba1\u5960\u5b9a\u4e86\u6cd5\u5f8b\u6846\u67b6\u7684\u57fa\u7840\u3002\u968f\u774080\u5e74\u4ee3\u6cd5\u5b66\u9662\u7684\u91cd\u65b0\u5efa\u7acb\uff0c1986\u5e74\u518d\u6b21\u4e3e\u884c\u4e86\u7b2c\u4e00\u6b21\u5f8b\u5e08\u8d44\u683c\u8003\u8bd5\uff0c\u540c\u5e74\uff0c\u4e2d\u56fd\u56fd\u5bb6\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\u6210\u7acb\u3002\u56e0\u6b64\uff0c\u53ef\u4ee5\u8bf4\u201c\u65b0\u201d\u4e2d\u56fd\uff08\u4ece\u6bdb\u6cfd\u4e1c\u7684\u4e13\u653f\u65f6\u671f\u5f00\u59cb\uff09\u7684\u6cd5\u5f8b\u804c\u4e1a\u771f\u6b63\u6062\u590d\uff0c\u4ec5\u4ec5\u670930\u5e74\u7684\u5386\u53f2\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

\u57281980\u5e74\u300a\u6682\u884c\u6761\u4f8b\u300b\u4e4b\u4e2d\uff0c\u5f8b\u5e08\u88ab\u5b9a\u4e49\u4e3a\u201c\u56fd\u5bb6\u5de5\u4f5c\u4eba\u5458\u201d\uff0c\u201c\u4ee3\u8868\u56fd\u5bb6\u201d\u5e76\u201c\u7ef4\u62a4\u56fd\u5bb6\u5229\u76ca\u201d\u3002\u6362\u8a00\u4e4b\uff0c\u5f8b\u5e08\u88ab\u89c6\u4f5c\u516c\u52a1\u5458\uff0c\u9886\u53d6\u56fd\u5bb6\u85aa\u4ff8\uff0c\u4e0d\u662f\u81ea\u7531\u6267\u4e1a\uff0c\u662f\u6574\u4e2a\u53f8\u6cd5\u90e8\u95e8\u7684\u4e00\u90e8\u5206\uff0c\u534f\u52a9\u6cd5\u5f8b\u7684\u5b9e\u65bd\u5e76\u575a\u6301\u793e\u4f1a\u4e3b\u4e49\u4e8b\u4e1a<\/span>[4]<\/span><\/a>\u3002\u56e0\u6b64\uff0c\u5b9e\u9645\u4e0a\u6240\u6709\u5728\u90a3\u65f6\u968f\u7740\u6cd5\u5b66\u9662\u91cd\u65b0\u529e\u5b66\u800c\u5efa\u7acb\u7684\u6cd5\u5f8b\u987e\u95ee\u5904\u3001\u5f8b\u5e08\u4e8b\u52a1\u6240\uff0c\u90fd\u662f\u67d0\u4e00\u79cd\u5f62\u5f0f\u7684\u653f\u5e9c\u90e8\u95e8\u7684\u9644\u5c5e\u673a\u6784\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

At the end of the 80s, the first foreign law firms also started flocking into China, initially in the form of consulting companies, working on the non-litigation practice and not present in the court, quickly achieving an almost total monopoly on commercial and corporate legal advice given to the large number of foreign investors entering the country. In 1992, the Ministry of Justice issued rules restricting the scope of the foreign firm\u2019s activities: while still able to hire locally qualified lawyers and law students, they were restricted to the practice of the law of their home countries and deal with the non-litigation practice concerning the enterprises from their own countries.\u00a0 In other words, they could not practice local law even if they employed locally qualified lawyers. This situation has not changed until today. At the same time, foreign firms have contributed actively to the training of a new generation of PRC commercial and corporate lawyers, some of whom were able (also thanks to scholarships offered by the same firms) to receive master degrees in the US or Europe.<\/span><\/p>\n

\u572880\u5e74\u4ee3\u672b\uff0c\u7b2c\u4e00\u6279\u5916\u56fd\u5f8b\u5e08\u4e8b\u52a1\u6240\u4e5f\u5f00\u59cb\u7fa4\u96c6\u5230\u4e2d\u56fd\uff0c\u6700\u521d\u662f\u4ee5\u516c\u53f8\u54a8\u8be2\u987e\u95ee\u7684\u65b9\u5f0f\u8fdb\u5165\uff0c\u4ece\u4e8b\u975e\u6cd5\u5f8b\u8bc9\u8bbc\u7684\u4e1a\u52a1\uff0c\u4e0d\u5f97\u5728\u4e2d\u56fd\u51fa\u5ead\uff0c\u800c\u540e\u5f88\u5feb\u6210\u529f\u5730\u5728\u9762\u5411\u5927\u91cf\u8fdb\u5165\u4e2d\u56fd\u7684\u5916\u8d44\u5546\u4e8b\u548c\u516c\u53f8\u63d0\u4f9b\u6cd5\u5f8b\u54a8\u8be2\u4e1a\u52a1\u4e2d\u5360\u636e\u4e86\u51e0\u4e4e\u662f\u5784\u65ad\u7684\u5730\u4f4d\u30021992\u5e74\uff0c\u53f8\u6cd5\u90e8\u4e0b\u53d1\u4e86\u9650\u5236\u5916\u56fd\u5f8b\u5e08\u4e8b\u52a1\u6240\u6d3b\u52a8\u8303\u56f4\u7684\u89c4\u5b9a\uff1a\u5c3d\u7ba1\u53ef\u4ee5\u62db\u8058\u672c\u5730\u6709\u80fd\u529b\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\u548c\u6cd5\u5b66\u9662\u6bd5\u4e1a\u751f\uff0c\u4f46\u662f\u6267\u4e1a\u8303\u56f4\u88ab\u9650\u5b9a\u5728\u4e3a\u672c\u56fd\u4f01\u4e1a\u673a\u6784\u8fdb\u884c\u6cd5\u5f8b\u975e\u8bc9\u8bbc\u670d\u52a1\u4e4b\u5185\u3002\u6362\u8a00\u4e4b\uff0c\u5373\u4f7f\u4ed6\u4eec\u62db\u8058\u5f53\u5730\u7684\u5408\u683c\u5f8b\u5e08\uff0c\u4e5f\u4e0d\u80fd\u591f\u53d7\u7406\u6848\u4ef6\u51fa\u5ead\u4ee3\u7406\u8bc9\u8bbc\u3002\u8fd9\u4e00\u60c5\u51b5\u76f4\u5230\u4eca\u5929\u4e5f\u6ca1\u6709\u6539\u53d8\u3002\u540c\u65f6\uff0c\u5916\u56fd\u5f8b\u5e08\u4e8b\u52a1\u6240\u5728\u57f9\u517b\u65b0\u4e00\u4ee3\u4e2d\u56fd\u5546\u4e8b\u548c\u516c\u53f8\u6cd5\u5f8b\u4e1a\u52a1\u5f8b\u5e08\u65b9\u9762\u505a\u51fa\u4e86\u79ef\u6781\u7684\u8d21\u732e\uff0c\u5411\u4e2d\u56fd\u5f8b\u5e08\u4f20\u64ad\u4e86\u7ecf\u9a8c\uff0c\u57f9\u517b\u4e86\u4e00\u4e9b\u4e2d\u56fd\u7684\u4e86\u89e3\u56fd\u9645\u5546\u4e8b\u7684\u6d89\u5916\u5f8b\u5e08\uff0c\u4e00\u4e9b\u4eba\uff08\u540c\u65f6\u4e5f\u8981\u611f\u8c22\u8fd9\u4e9b\u4e8b\u52a1\u6240\u7684\u5956\u5b66\u91d1\u8d44\u52a9\uff09\u8fd8\u901a\u8fc7\u5f8b\u5e08\u6240\u57f9\u517b\uff0c\u5728\u7f8e\u56fd\u548c\u6b27\u6d32\u83b7\u5f97\u4e86\u7855\u58eb\u5b66\u4f4d\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

At the beginning of the 90s, the first firms organized along the private partnership model were established <\/ins>under the reform of China<\/ins>. Many state-owned law firms started to<\/ins> convert their system<\/ins> into the<\/ins> partnership model l<\/ins>ike the company and<\/ins> the personal partnership<\/ins> model<\/ins> assuming unlimited joint and several liab<\/ins>ility.<\/ins> Junhe Law Offices (now one of the largest) was founded in 1989 and King & Wood in 1993. During the same years, the first firms registered after the name of an individual lawyer also were founded. <\/ins>I<\/ins>n<\/ins> 2008,<\/ins> with the amendment of<\/ins> the<\/ins> Lawyer Law<\/ins>,<\/ins> over 90percent of the law firms have become the personal<\/ins> partnership model, named by their own names, besides<\/ins> <\/ins>some sta<\/ins>te-owned law firms were still remained in some remote and less developed areas, all<\/ins> of the company-like partnership law firms have been canceled<\/ins>.<\/ins> <\/ins>Meanwhile, some legal aid centers have been set up in the<\/ins> Justice Bureaus, aim<\/ins>ing<\/ins> <\/ins>to help those needy civilians to<\/ins> litigate funded by the state. Some of the big law firms such as D<\/ins>a Cheng, Jin Du, Jin Tiancheng, Jing Heng and so on have<\/ins> hundreds of thousands of lawyers<\/ins>, and they have specific divisions of professions. However<\/ins>, <\/ins> <\/del><\/del><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

<\/del> <\/p>\n

M<\/del>ost<\/ins> ost<\/del> PRC lawyers who practice in a moderate and small law firms<\/ins>\u00a0 tend to be \u201cgeneralists\u201d and to do litigation (often both civil and criminal) as well as commercial and corporate work.<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span>[5]<\/span><\/a> In the past few years, however, the largest firms (especially those with a large nation-wide network) have focused mainly on commercial\/corporate work and related commercial\/civil litigation, for two main reasons: first, because these remain the most profitable practices. Second, because (as further explained later) criminal cases and administrative litigation cases to a large extent still remain the less rewarding ones both financially and from a professional point of view, and more risky, thus, it fails to appeal to the successful lawyers.<\/ins><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

90\u5e74\u4ee3\u521d\uff0c\u7b2c\u4e00\u6279\u4ee5\u79c1\u6709\u5408\u4f19\u5236\u4e3a\u7ec4\u7ec7\u5f62\u5f0f\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\u4e8b\u52a1\u6240\u5728\u4e2d\u56fd\u6539\u9769\u4ea7\u751f\u3002\u5f88\u591a\u56fd\u529e\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\u6240\u5f00\u59cb\u8f6c\u6362\u4f53\u5236\uff0c\u6210\u4e3a\u7c7b\u4f3c\u516c\u53f8\u7684\u5408\u4f5c\u5236\u5f8b\u5e08\u6240\u548c\u627f\u62c5\u65e0\u9650\u8fde\u5e26\u8d23\u4efb\u7684\u4e2a\u4eba\u5408\u4f19\u5f8b\u5e08\u4e8b\u52a1\u6240\u30021989\u5e74\uff0c\u541b\u5408\u5f8b\u5e08\u4e8b\u52a1\u6240\uff08\u73b0\u5728\u662f\u6700\u5927\u7684\u5f8b\u6240\u4e4b\u4e00\uff09\u6210\u7acb\u30021993\u5e74King&Wood\u5f8b\u5e08\u4e8b\u52a1\u6240\u6210\u7acb\uff0c\u540c\u65f6\u671f\uff0c\u4ee5\u4e2a\u4eba\u540d\u5b57\u6ce8\u518c\u7684\u4e00\u4e9b\u5c0f\u578b\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\u4e8b\u52a1\u6240\u4e5f\u5728\u4e2d\u56fd\u51fa\u73b0\u30022008\u5e74\uff0c\u4e2d\u56fd\u4fee\u6539\u4e86\u300a\u5f8b\u5e08\u6cd5\u300b\uff0c90%\u4ee5\u4e0a\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\u6240\u6210\u4e3a\u5408\u4f19\u6027\u8d28\u7684\u4e2a\u4eba\u6240\uff0c\u4e2a\u4eba\u540d\u53f7\u7684\u4e2a\u4eba\u6240\uff0c\u53e6\u5916\u8fd8\u6709\u8fb9\u8fdc\u7ecf\u6d4e\u4e0d\u53d1\u8fbe\u5730\u533a\u4fdd\u7559\u4e86\u5c11\u91cf\u56fd\u5bb6\u529e\u7684\u6240\uff0c\u6240\u6709\u7684\u516c\u53f8\u7c7b\u4f3c\u7684\u5408\u4f5c\u6240\u5168\u90e8\u53d6\u6d88\u3002\u540c\u65f6\uff0c\u4e2d\u56fd\u5728\u53f8\u6cd5\u5c40\u91cc\u6210\u7acb\u4e86\u4e00\u4e9b\u6cd5\u5f8b\u63f4\u52a9\u4e2d\u5fc3\uff0c\u7531\u56fd\u5bb6\u5bf9\u4e00\u4e9b\u56f0\u96be\u6c11\u4f17\u7684\u8bc9\u8bbc\u4e8b\u52a1\u8fdb\u884c\u56fd\u5bb6\u51fa\u8d44\u7684\u6cd5\u5f8b\u5e2e\u52a9\u3002\u4e2d\u56fd\u7684\u4e00\u4e9b\u5927\u578b\u6240\uff0c\u50cf\u5927\u6210\u3001\u91d1\u675c\u3001\u9526\u5929\u57ce\u3001\u4eac\u8861\u7b49\u90fd\u6709\u6570\u767e\u540d\u4e0a\u5343\u540d\u5f8b\u5e08\uff0c\u6709\u4e13\u4e1a\u5206\u5de5\uff0c\u800c\u5927\u90e8\u5206\u5728\u4e2d\u5c0f\u5f8b\u6240\u6267\u4e1a\u7684\u4e2d\u56fd\u5f8b\u5e08\uff0c\u90fd\u662f\u201c\u901a\u624d\u201d\uff0c\u65e2\u5904\u7406\u5211\u4e8b\u8bc9\u8bbc\uff0c\u53c8\u5904\u7406\u6c11\u4e8b\u8bc9\u8bbc\uff0c\u540c\u65f6\u8fd8\u517c\u987e\u5546\u4e8b\u548c\u516c\u53f8\u4e1a\u52a1<\/span>[6]<\/span><\/a>\u3002\u7136\u800c\uff0c\u5728\u8fc7\u53bb\u7684\u51e0\u5e74\u4e2d\uff0c\u8bb8\u591a\u5927\u5f8b\u6240\uff08\u5c24\u5176\u662f\u90a3\u4e9b\u8986\u76d6\u5168\u56fd\u7684\uff09\u5df2\u7ecf\u4e3b\u8981\u5c06\u4e1a\u52a1\u96c6\u4e2d\u4e8e\u5546\u4e8b\/\u516c\u53f8\u548c\u5546\u4e8b\/\u6c11\u4e8b\u4e1a\u52a1\u4e0a\u3002\u8fd9\u6837\u505a\u6709\u4e24\u70b9\u539f\u56e0\uff1a\u7b2c\u4e00\uff0c\u8fd9\u4e9b\u9886\u57df\u4e00\u76f4\u4fdd\u6301\u7740\u8f83\u597d\u7684\u6536\u76ca\u6c34\u5e73\u3002\u7b2c\u4e8c\uff0c\u4ece\u7269\u8d28\u6536\u76ca\u548c\u4e13\u4e1a\u89d2\u5ea6\u6765\u770b\uff0c\u5211\u4e8b\u4e1a\u52a1\uff08\u540e\u9762\u4f1a\u63d0\u5230\uff09\u548c\u884c\u653f\u8bc9\u8bbc\u4e1a\u52a1\u5728\u5f88\u5927\u7a0b\u5ea6\u4e0a\u6765\u8bf4\uff0c\u5728\u4e2d\u56fd\u4f9d\u7136\u6536\u76ca\u5c11\u800c\u98ce\u9669\u5927\uff0c\u5438\u5f15\u4e0d\u4e86\u6210\u529f\u5f8b\u5e08\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

The Lawyers Law<\/span><\/b><\/p>\n

The development of private firms and the increasing role played by lawyers in the judicial system in the 90s led to the adoption in 1996 of the new \u201cLawyers Law\u201d . This law (further amended in 2007) is recognized as the real first \u201ccode\u201d regulating lawyers in the \u201cNew China\u201d. <\/span><\/p>\n

Under the Lawyers Law, a lawyer is defined as \u201ca practitioner who has duly obtained the lawyer\u2019s practicing certificate according to the law and who, by way of accepting an appointment or through designation, provides legal services to a concerned party\u201d a very different definition from the previous one of \u201cworker of the state\u201d. The Law also states that, in its practice, a lawyer must \u201cabide by the Constitution and the law, and adhere to the ethics of the legal profession and practice discipline\u201d, but also that he \u201cshall be subject to the monitoring by the state, the public and the concerned party\u201d. Still, article 3 (4) of the law states very clearly that \u201ca lawyer practicing in accordance with the law shall be protected by the law and no organization or individual may infringe upon his\/her lawful rights and interests\u201d.<\/span><\/p>\n

90\u5e74\u4ee3\u672b\u79c1\u4eba\u5f8b\u6240\u7684\u5174\u8d77\u4ee5\u53ca\u5f8b\u5e08\u5728\u53f8\u6cd5\u7cfb\u7edf\u4e2d\u7684\u4f5c\u7528\u8d8a\u6765\u8d8a\u91cd\u8981\uff0c\u76f4\u63a5\u4fc3\u4f7f\u4e861996\u5e74\u65b0\u300a\u5f8b\u5e08\u6cd5\u300b\u7684\u51fa\u53f0\uff0c\u8fd9\u90e8\u6cd5\u5f8b\uff082008\u5e74\u53c8\u8fdb\u884c\u4e86\u4fee\u6539\uff09\u88ab\u8ba4\u4e3a\u662f\u65b0\u4e2d\u56fd\u7b2c\u4e00\u90e8\u771f\u6b63\u7684\u7ba1\u7406\u548c\u89c4\u8303\u5f8b\u5e08\u7684\u201c\u6cd5\u5178\u201d\u3002\u5728\u5f8b\u5e08\u6cd5\u4e2d\uff0c\u5f8b\u5e08\u7684\u5b9a\u4e49\u4e3a\uff1a\u201c\u4f9d\u6cd5\u53d6\u5f97\u5f8b\u5e08\u6267\u4e1a\u8bc1\u4e66\uff0c\u63a5\u53d7\u59d4\u6258\u6216\u8005\u6307\u5b9a\uff0c\u4e3a\u5f53\u4e8b\u4eba\u63d0\u4f9b\u6cd5\u5f8b\u670d\u52a1\u7684\u6267\u4e1a\u4eba\u5458\u201d\u3002\u8fd9\u4e0e\u4e4b\u524d\u7684\u201c\u56fd\u5bb6\u5de5\u4f5c\u8005\u201d\u975e\u5e38\u4e0d\u4e00\u6837\u3002\u540c\u65f6\uff0c\u8be5\u6cd5\u5ba3\u79f0\uff0c\u5728\u6267\u4e1a\u8fc7\u7a0b\u4e2d\uff0c\u5f8b\u5e08\u5fc5\u987b\uff1a\u201c\u9075\u5b88\u5baa\u6cd5\u548c\u6cd5\u5f8b\uff0c\u606a\u5b88\u5f8b\u5e08\u804c\u4e1a\u9053\u5fb7\u548c\u6267\u4e1a\u7eaa\u5f8b\u201d\uff0c\u540c\u65f6\uff0c\u5f8b\u5e08\u201c\u5e94\u5f53\u63a5\u53d7\u56fd\u5bb6\u3001\u793e\u4f1a\u548c\u5f53\u4e8b\u4eba\u7684\u76d1\u7763\u201d\u3002\u518d\u8005\uff0c\u8be5\u6cd5\u7b2c3\u6761\u7b2c4\u6b3e\u89c4\u5b9a\uff1a\u201c\u5f8b\u5e08\u4f9d\u6cd5\u6267\u4e1a\u53d7\u6cd5\u5f8b\u4fdd\u62a4\uff0c\u4efb\u4f55\u7ec4\u7ec7\u548c\u4e2a\u4eba\u4e0d\u5f97\u4fb5\u5bb3\u5f8b\u5e08\u7684\u5408\u6cd5\u6743\u76ca\u201d\u3002 <\/span><\/p>\n

In order to qualify as a lawyer, an individual must \u201cuphold the Constitution\u201d and must have passed the state judicial examination (since 2002, China holds every year a \u201cunified bar exam\u201d which opens the any legal profession). The individual also is required to have completed a full year\u2019s training in a law firm and, similarly to requirements found also in other jurisdictions, to \u201cbeing of good conduct\u201d. <\/span><\/p>\n

The practicing certificate allows the lawyer to practice nation-wide, i.e. it is not subject to any territorial limitation. More importantly, however, lawyers cannot practice \u201csolo\u201d and must do that only through duly established law firms; in addition, they cannot work for more than one firm. In other words, the practicing certificate cannot be used by a lawyer unless he is registered as a practitioner with a law firm. Any appointment needs to be accepted by the firm as a whole and fees need to be collected by the firm. At the same time, the sta<\/ins>te evaluat<\/ins>es<\/ins> and operate<\/ins>s<\/ins> lawyers th<\/ins>r<\/ins>ough annal renewal system<\/ins> and asks the lawyers to become the member of the<\/ins> bar, also in that way can the state<\/ins> conduct bar regulation.<\/ins><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

\u4e3a\u4e86\u6210\u4e3a\u4e00\u540d\u5408\u683c\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\uff0c\u4e00\u4e2a\u4eba\u5fc5\u987b\u201c\u62e5\u62a4\u5baa\u6cd5\u201d\u4ee5\u53ca\u5fc5\u987b\u901a\u8fc7\u56fd\u5bb6\u53f8\u6cd5\u8003\u8bd5\uff08\u81ea2002\u5e74\u8d77\uff0c\u4e2d\u56fd\u6bcf\u5e74\u4e3e\u884c\u9762\u5411\u6240\u6709\u6cd5\u5f8b\u804c\u4e1a\u9886\u57df\u7684\u7edf\u4e00\u56fd\u5bb6\u53f8\u6cd5\u8003\u8bd5\uff09\u3002\u540c\u65f6\uff0c\u8fd8\u8981\u6ee1\u8db3\u5728\u5f8b\u6240\u5b9e\u4e60\u6ee1\u4e00\u5e74\u5e76\u4e14\u201c\u54c1\u884c\u826f\u597d\u201d\uff0c\u76f8\u4f3c\u7684\u8981\u6c42\u8fd8\u53ef\u4ee5\u5728\u5176\u4ed6\u53f8\u6cd5\u5236\u5ea6\u89c4\u5b9a\u4e2d\u627e\u5230\u3002\u804c\u4e1a\u8d44\u683c\u8bc1\u5141\u8bb8\u4e00\u4e2a\u5f8b\u5e08\u5728\u5168\u56fd\u8303\u56f4\u5185\u6267\u4e1a\uff0c\u6ca1\u6709\u5730\u533a\u533a\u57df\u6027\u7684\u9650\u5236\u3002\u7136\u800c\u66f4\u4e3a\u91cd\u8981\u7684\u662f\uff0c\u5f8b\u5e08\u4e0d\u5f97\u4ee5\u4e2a\u4eba\u540d\u4e49\u6267\u4e1a\uff0c\u5fc5\u987b\u901a\u8fc7\u5df2\u7ecf\u6210\u7acb\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\u6240\u8fdb\u884c\u6267\u4e1a\uff0c\u53e6\u5916\uff0c\u4e0d\u80fd\u540c\u65f6\u4e3a\u4e24\u4e2a\u4ee5\u4e0a\u5f8b\u6240\u5de5\u4f5c\u3002\u6362\u53e5\u8bdd\u8bf4\uff0c\u8d44\u683c\u8bc1\u4e66\u4e0d\u80fd\u88ab\u4e00\u4e2a\u5355\u72ec\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\u6240\u4f7f\u7528\uff0c\u9664\u975e\u4ed6\u662f\u4e00\u4e2a\u5f8b\u6240\u7684\u6267\u4e1a\u5f8b\u5e08\uff0c\u4efb\u4f55\u6307\u6d3e\u90fd\u8981\u5f97\u5230\u5f8b\u6240\u7684\u5141\u8bb8\u5e76\u4e14\u8d39\u7528\u90fd\u8981\u7531\u5f8b\u6240\u8fdb\u884c\u6536\u53d6\u3002\u540c\u65f6\uff0c\u4e2d\u56fd\u4ee5\u6bcf\u5e74\u5e74\u68c0\u7684\u65b9\u5f0f\uff0c\u5bf9\u6240\u6709\u5f8b\u5e08\u8fdb\u884c\u8003\u6838\u7ba1\u7406\u3002\u5e76\u901a\u8fc7\u5168\u5458\u4f1a\u5458\u5236\uff0c\u8981\u6c42\u6bcf\u4e2a\u5f8b\u5e08\u90fd\u6210\u4e3a\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\u7684\u4f1a\u5458\uff0c\u8fdb\u884c\u534f\u4f1a\u7ba1\u7406\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

Once registered as a lawyer, the individual is subject to an yearly renewal system for his practicing certificate. The practicing certificate may be revoked or cancelled if it was procured through improper means (fraud or bribery) or if the applicant didn\u2019t meet the conditions required to be issued a license. The assessment of whether an individual meets the requirements to be registered as a lawyer or to have his license renewed falls within the powers of the local bureau of justice, rather than the bar association. This peculiar feature of the lawyer\u2019s licensing system still remains today under the revised Lawyers Law.<\/span><\/p>\n

\u4e00\u65e6\u6ce8\u518c\u4e3a\u5f8b\u5e08\uff0c\u5176\u6267\u4e1a\u8d44\u683c\u8bc1\u4e66\u5c31\u8981\u7ecf\u5386\u6bcf\u5e74\u4e00\u6b21\u7684\u5e74\u68c0\u3002\u5176\u95f4\uff0c\u5982\u679c\u8d44\u683c\u8bc1\u4e66\u662f\u901a\u8fc7\u4e0d\u6b63\u5f53\u624b\u6bb5\u83b7\u5f97\u7684\uff0c\u6216\u8005\u5728\u6267\u4e1a\u4e2d\u6709\u8fdd\u53cd\u89c4\u5219\u7684\u60c5\u5f62\uff0c\u4f8b\u5982\u6b3a\u8bc8\u548c\u8d3f\u8d42\uff0c\u6216\u8005\u7533\u8bf7\u8005\u65e0\u6cd5\u8fbe\u5230\u53d1\u653e\u6267\u7167\u7684\u8981\u6c42\uff0c\u4ed6\u7684\u8d44\u683c\u8bc1\u4e66\u53ef\u80fd\u4f1a\u88ab\u64a4\u9500\u3002\u7531\u5f53\u5730\u7684\u53f8\u6cd5\u5c40\u800c\u4e0d\u662f\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\u6765\u8003\u6838\u4e00\u4e2a\u4eba\uff0c\u662f\u5426\u7b26\u5408\u53d1\u653e\u6267\u7167\u7684\u8981\u6c42\u548c\u8bc4\u4f30\u5f8b\u5e08\u6267\u7167\u662f\u5426\u80fd\u66f4\u65b0\uff0c\u5728\u4fee\u6539\u5f8b\u5e08\u6cd5\u4e4b\u540e\uff0c\u8fd9\u79cd\u5f8b\u5e08\u6267\u7167\u4f53\u7cfb\u7684\u7279\u70b9\u4f9d\u7136\u4fdd\u7559\u4e86\u4e0b\u6765\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

Under the Lawyers Law, lawyers have a duty to \u201csafeguard the legal rights and interests of their clients\u201d. When acting as defense counsels, th<\/ins>ey would offer the legal aid to the suspects with the<\/ins> presence of the police and<\/ins> the police usually prevent and constraint their meeting w<\/ins>ith their clients, what’s more,<\/ins> <\/del>they are given broad rights to present materials and evidence, to review, extract and copy files related to the case even when it is examined by the prosecution. <\/span><\/p>\n

As mentioned above, administratively, the Lawyers Law, entrusts the Ministry of Justice and in particular the local department of justice at city level with the responsibility of administering the lawyers\u2019 licensing system, assessing the qualification of lawyers and taking disciplinary actions against them. The local bar associations are given the more limited role of representing the category as a whole, carrying out training activities and handling professional liability insurance matters (for instance, several bar associations applied for insurance covering all firms practicing in their jurisdiction). Bar associations are also empowered to issue fines and penalties if the lawyers within their jurisdiction breach the bar association\u2019s own rules. <\/span><\/p>\n

\u5728\u5f8b\u5e08\u6cd5\u4e2d\uff0c\u5f8b\u5e08\u7684\u804c\u8d23\u662f\u7ef4\u62a4\u548c\u4fdd\u969c\u5f53\u4e8b\u4eba\u7684\u5408\u6cd5\u6743\u76ca\uff0c\u5f53\u4f5c\u4e3a\u8fa9\u62a4\u5f8b\u5e08\u65f6\uff0c\u4e2d\u56fd\u5f8b\u5e08\u5f80\u5f80\u8981\u83b7\u5f97\u8b66\u5bdf\u5728\u573a\u7684\u60c5\u51b5\u4e0b\uff0c\u5bf9\u5acc\u7591\u4eba\u7684\u6cd5\u5f8b\u5e2e\u52a9\u3002\u4f1a\u89c1\u7ecf\u5e38\u53d7\u5230\u8b66\u5bdf\u7684\u963b\u6b62\u548c\u9650\u5236\u3002\u5728\u68c0\u5bdf\u8d77\u8bc9\u9636\u6bb5\uff0c\u4ed6\u4eec\u6709\u6743\u83b7\u5f97\u63a7\u65b9\u7684\u6307\u63a7\u6750\u6599\u8bc1\u636e\uff0c\u67e5\u9605\u3001\u6458\u53d6\u3001\u590d\u5370\u6848\u4ef6\u5377\u5b97\u3002\u6b63\u5982\u4e0a\u9762\u6240\u63d0\u5230\u7684\uff0c\u4ece\u884c\u653f\u89d2\u5ea6\u6765\u8bb2\uff0c\u5f8b\u5e08\u6cd5\u5b9e\u9645\u4e0a\u662f\u59d4\u6258\u53f8\u6cd5\u90e8\u548c\u5e02\u7ea7\u53f8\u6cd5\u90e8\u95e8\u53bb\u7ba1\u7406\u5f8b\u5e08\u7684\u6267\u4e1a\u8bc1\u4ef6\u7cfb\u7edf\u8fd8\u6709\u8bc4\u4f30\u5f8b\u5e08\u8d44\u683c\u80fd\u529b\u4ee5\u53ca\u5bf9\u5f8b\u5e08\u8fdb\u884c\u7eaa\u5f8b\u5904\u5206\u3002\u4ece\u6574\u4f53\u4e0a\u8bf4\uff0c\u5f53\u5730\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\u5728\u4ee3\u8868\u5f8b\u5e08\u65f6\u7684\u4f5c\u7528\u53d7\u5230\u4e86\u4e00\u5b9a\u7684\u9650\u5236\uff0c\u4ed6\u4eec\u8d1f\u8d23\u5f00\u5c55\u57f9\u8bad\u6d3b\u52a8\u3001\u5bf9\u5f8b\u5e08\u8fdb\u884c\u8bc4\u6bd4\u4f18\u79c0\u548c\u901a\u62a5\u5904\u7406\u8fdd\u89c4\uff0c\u548c\u5904\u7406\u5f8b\u5e08\u7684\u8d23\u4efb\u4fdd\u9669\u4e8b\u5b9c\uff08\u4f8b\u5982\uff0c\u4e00\u4e9b\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\u4e3a\u5728\u81ea\u5df1\u7ba1\u8f96\u533a\u57df\u5185\u7684\u6240\u6709\u5f8b\u6240\u90fd\u7533\u8bf7\u4e86\u804c\u4e1a\u4fdd\u9669\uff09\uff0c\u5728\u5176\u7ba1\u8f96\u8303\u56f4\u5185\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\u8fdd\u53cd\u5f8b\u534f\u81ea\u5df1\u300a\u7ae0\u7a0b\u300b\u548c\u89c4\u5219\uff0c\u534f\u4f1a\u6709\u6743\u5bf9\u5176\u5904\u901a\u62a5\u548c\u60e9\u7f5a\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

In addition to exercising control over the lawyers, the judicial bureaus exercise broader control also over law firms by requiring them to submit an annual practice report and the results of the assessment of their lawyers\u2019 practice. In practice, law firms are required to submit a brief description of the main cases handled and describe any specific issues encountered during their practice in the previous year. In addition, law firms are also subject to the annual registration renewal system. These features of the Lawyers Law allow the executive branch substantial control over the legal profession. <\/span><\/p>\n

The Lawyers Law also contains provisions for the establishment of a legal aid system, allowing individuals free support from a qualified lawyer in cases related to family support, work-related injuries, criminal actions, state compensation claims or payment of pensions for deceased persons. Each law firm in China is required to allocate a number of days each year to discharging assignments coming through the Legal Aid system, and th<\/ins>e<\/ins> law<\/ins>yers can get a few allowance from the state.<\/ins> .<\/del> Views differ on whether legal aid centers have been effective in increasing access to justice.<\/span> [7]<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n

\u9664\u4e86\u5bf9\u5f8b\u5e08\u8fdb\u884c\u7ba1\u7406\uff0c\u53f8\u6cd5\u884c\u653f\u90e8\u95e8\u8fd8\u8981\u5bf9\u5f8b\u5e08\u4e8b\u52a1\u6240\u8fdb\u884c\u66f4\u5e7f\u6cdb\u7684\u76d1\u7763\u548c\u7ba1\u7406\uff0c\u5f8b\u6240\u8981\u5411\u5176\u63d0\u4ea4\u5e74\u5ea6\u6267\u4e1a\u60c5\u51b5\u62a5\u544a\u548c\u5f8b\u5e08\u6267\u4e1a\u8003\u6838\u7ed3\u679c\u3002\u5b9e\u9645\u4e2d\uff0c\u5f8b\u6240\u8981\u4e0a\u4ea4\u4e00\u4efd\u5bf9\u5176\u5728\u524d\u4e00\u5e74\u7684\u6267\u4e1a\u8fc7\u7a0b\u4e2d\u6240\u9047\u5230\u7684\u7279\u6b8a\u4e8b\u9879\u548c\u672c\u6240\u4e3b\u8981\u5904\u7406\u6848\u4ef6\u7684\u7b80\u8981\u63cf\u8ff0\u62a5\u544a\u3002\u53e6\u5916\uff0c\u5f8b\u6240\u8fd8\u8981\u63a5\u53d7\u6bcf\u5e74\u7684\u5e74\u5ea6\u8003\u6838\u3002\u8fd9\u4e9b\u5f8b\u5e08\u6cd5\u4e2d\u6240\u89c4\u5b9a\u7684\u6761\u6b3e\uff0c\u5141\u8bb8\u884c\u653f\u673a\u6784\u5728\u5b9e\u9645\u4e0a\u63a7\u5236\u548c\u76d1\u7ba1\u6cd5\u5f8b\u804c\u4e1a\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

\u5f8b\u5e08\u6cd5\u4e2d\u540c\u6837\u5b58\u5728\u5efa\u7acb\u6cd5\u5f8b\u63f4\u52a9\u5236\u5ea6\u7684\u6761\u6b3e\uff0c\u5728\u5bb6\u5ead\u3001\u5de5\u4f24\u3001\u5211\u4e8b\u3001\u56fd\u5bb6\u8d54\u507f\u6216\u8005\u662f\u6b7b\u4ea1\u8d54\u507f\u91d1\u7684\u6848\u4ef6\u4e2d\uff0c\u516c\u6c11\u6c42\u52a9\u8005\u53ef\u4ee5\u4ece\u4e00\u540d\u5408\u683c\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\u90a3\u5f97\u5230\u514d\u8d39\u7684\u5e2e\u52a9\u3002\u5728\u4e2d\u56fd\uff0c\u4efb\u4f55\u4e00\u5bb6\u5f8b\u6240\u6bcf\u5e74\u90fd\u9700\u8981\u5206\u914d\u51fa\u4e00\u4e9b\u65f6\u95f4\u6765\u5904\u7406\u6cd5\u5f8b\u63f4\u52a9\u7cfb\u7edf\u6d3e\u53d1\u7684\u4efb\u52a1\u3002\u800c\u56fd\u5bb6\u4f1a\u7ed9\u5f8b\u5e08\u5c11\u91cf\u7684\u529e\u6848\u8865\u8d34\u3002\u7136\u800c\uff0c\u5bf9\u4e8e\u6cd5\u5f8b\u63f4\u52a9\u4e2d\u5fc3\u5728\u63d0\u5347\u793e\u4f1a\u6b63\u4e49\u4e2d\u662f\u5426\u53d1\u6325\u4e86\u6709\u6548\u7684\u4f5c\u7528,\u793e\u4f1a\u4e0a\u5b58\u5728\u7740\u4e0d\u540c\u7684\u89c2\u70b9\u3002<\/span>[8]<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n

Challenges Facing the Legal Profession<\/span><\/b><\/p>\n

The challenges faced by lawyers in China can be broadly divided into two broad categories. The first category includes those facing any lawyer practicing in China. The second includes those facing in particular lawyers which represent certain categories of cases.<\/span><\/p>\n

\u6cd5\u5f8b\u804c\u4e1a\u6240\u9762\u4e34\u7684\u56f0\u96be<\/span><\/p>\n

\u5728\u4e2d\u56fd\uff0c\u5f8b\u5e08\u6240\u9762\u4e34\u7684\u56f0\u96be\u5927\u81f4\u53ef\u4ee5\u5206\u4e3a\u4e24\u5927\u7c7b\uff1a\u7b2c\u4e00\u5927\u7c7b\u662f\u6240\u6709\u5728\u4e2d\u56fd\u6267\u4e1a\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\u90fd\u4f1a\u9047\u5230\u7684\u56f0\u96be\uff1b\u7b2c\u4e8c\u5927\u7c7b\u662f\u4e00\u4e9b\u4ee3\u7406\u7279\u5b9a\u6848\u4ef6\u7684\u4e2a\u522b\u5f8b\u5e08\u6240\u9047\u5230\u7684\u56f0\u96be\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

Category 1: <\/span><\/b><\/p>\n

1. Constraints faced due to the structure of the judicial system.<\/span><\/p>\n

Various Chinese scholars have noted that, as designed, the PRC judicial system does not ensure independence of the judges. This extends both to \u201cinternal\u201d independence (i.e. the ability of the judge to exercise its functions without influence from his superiors or from higher level courts) and \u201cexternal independence\u201d, i.e. the ability of the judge and of the court as a whole to take decisions without undue influence from external organizations. <\/span><\/p>\n

Although since the 2002 Judges Law China has made significant progress in \u201cprofessionalizing\u201d its judges (for instance, all candidates are now required to pass the unified qualification exam and to have a law degree \u2013 a requirement that did not exist before the 2002 reform), and there are timid movements towards a reform of the funding system of the courts, there are significant roadblocks remaining on the path to independence.<\/span> [9]<\/span><\/a> For instance, under the Law of the Organization of People\u2019s Courts, the adjudication of \u201cimportant cases\u201d (sic) is taken from the judges who attended the hearings and given to an \u201cadjudication committee\u201d presided by the Court\u2019s President and composed of judges who are often more senior than the one who heard the case.<\/span><\/p>\n

\u7b2c\u4e00\u5927\u7c7b\uff1a<\/b><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

\u53f8\u6cd5\u4f53\u7cfb\u7ed3\u6784\u6240\u9020\u6210\u7684\u9650\u5236<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

\u8bb8\u591a\u4e2d\u56fd\u7684\u5b66\u8005\u63d0\u51fa\uff1a\u6b63\u5982\u7acb\u6cd5\u6240\u89c4\u5b9a\u7684\u4e00\u6837\uff0c\u4e2d\u56fd\u7684\u53f8\u6cd5\u4f53\u7cfb\u4e0d\u80fd\u786e\u4fdd\u6cd5\u5b98\u7684\u72ec\u7acb\u6027\uff0c\u8fd9\u65e2\u5305\u62ec\u5185\u90e8\u72ec\u7acb\uff08\u4f8b\u5982\uff0c\u6cd5\u5b98\u53d1\u6325\u4f5c\u7528\u4e0d\u53d7\u4e0a\u7ea7\u6cd5\u9662\u53ca\u66f4\u9ad8\u7ea7\u522b\u6cd5\u9662\u7684\u5f71\u54cd\uff09\u53c8\u5305\u62ec\u5916\u90e8\u72ec\u7acb\uff08\u6cd5\u5b98\u4f5c\u51fa\u51b3\u5b9a\u4e0d\u53d7\u4efb\u4f55\u5916\u754c\u7ec4\u7ec7\u7684\u5f71\u54cd\uff09\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

2002\u5e74\u7684\u4e2d\u56fd\u300a\u6cd5\u5b98\u6cd5\u300b\u4f7f\u5f97\u6cd5\u5b98\u7684\u4e13\u4e1a\u5316\u53d6\u5f97\u4e86\u5de8\u5927\u7684\u8fdb\u6b65\uff08\u4f8b\u5982\uff0c\u6240\u6709\u7684\u6cd5\u5b98\u5019\u9009\u4eba\u90fd\u5fc5\u987b\u901a\u8fc7\u7edf\u4e00\u7684\u56fd\u5bb6\u53f8\u6cd5\u8003\u8bd5\uff0c\u5e76\u4e14\u8981\u83b7\u5f97\u6cd5\u5b66\u5b66\u4f4d\uff0c\u8fd9\u4e00\u8981\u6c42\u57282002\u5e74\u6539\u9769\u4e4b\u524d\u5e76\u4e0d\u5b58\u5728\uff09\uff0c\u4ee5\u53ca\u4e00\u4e9b\u6307\u5411\u6cd5\u9662\u8d22\u653f\u4f9b\u7ed9\u7cfb\u7edf\u7684\u6539\u9769\u4e3e\u52a8\u5df2\u7ecf\u5728\u7f13\u6162\u800c\u53c8\u8c28\u614e\u7684\u5f00\u5c55\uff0c\u5c3d\u7ba1\u8fd9\u6837\uff0c\u5728\u901a\u5f80\u72ec\u7acb\u7684\u9053\u8def\u4e0a\u4ecd\u7136\u56f0\u96be\u91cd\u91cd\u3002<\/span>[10]<\/span><\/a>\u4f8b\u5982\uff0c\u5728\u300a\u6cd5\u9662\u7ec4\u7ec7\u6cd5\u300b\u4e2d\uff0c\u5bf9\u201c\u91cd\u8981\u6848\u4ef6\u201d\uff08\u539f\u6587\u4e2d\u5c31\u662f\u5982\u6b64\u63cf\u8ff0\u7684\uff09\u7684\u5ba1\u5224\u9700\u8981\u7531\u4e3b\u5ba1\u6cd5\u5b98\u79fb\u4ea4\u7ed9\u5ba1\u5224\u59d4\u5458\u4f1a\u5ba1\u7406\uff0c\u7531\u6cd5\u9662\u9662\u957f\u548c\u6bd4\u5148\u524d\u6cd5\u5b98\u66f4\u9ad8\u7ea7\u522b\u7684\u6cd5\u5b98\u7ec4\u6210\u5ba1\u5224\u59d4\u5458\u4f1a\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

While the stated intent of the legislator in designing this system was to ensure that \u201cjunior\u201d judges could benefit from the opinion of more senior and experienced ones especially when facing complex or sensitive cases, the system has several obvious set-backs: first, the judges comprising the adjudication committee receive only a written report of the case prepared by the presiding the hearing and therefore do not benefit from the actual experience of the trial, the exchanges between litigants or the defense and the prosecution; in addition, due to the special role played by the President of the court (who often sits also on the Political and Legal Committee within the local Party\u2019s Commission<\/span>[11]<\/span><\/a>) and the importance of his opinion in deciding the case, the adjudication committee can become a vehicle through which exercise local political influence on the outcome of the case. In these circumstances, the arguments and counterarguments made by the lawyers (especially the defense team in criminal trials or the plaintiff\u2019s counsel in an administrative case where the local government is being sued) may lose relevance when the final decision is made. All<\/ins> above mentioned are pervasively criticised<\/ins> by all of the Chinese legal scholarship<\/ins>\u2014\u2014<\/ins> a case has been<\/ins> heard but without a verdict and<\/ins> a case has a verdict but without a trial.<\/ins> The right of the adjudication committee is always<\/ins> be replaced or<\/ins> made as a figurehead.<\/ins> <\/ins> <\/span><\/p>\n

\u7acb\u6cd5\u673a\u5173\u5ba3\u79f0\uff1a\u8bbe\u8ba1\u8fd9\u4e00\u4f53\u7cfb\u7684\u76ee\u7684\u662f\u4e3a\u4e86\u786e\u4fdd\u521d\u7ea7\u6cd5\u5b98\u80fd\u591f\u4ece\u9ad8\u7ea7\u548c\u6709\u7ecf\u9a8c\u7684\u6cd5\u5b98\u90a3\u91cc\u5f97\u5230\u6709\u76ca\u7684\u5efa\u8bae\uff0c\u5c24\u5176\u662f\u9047\u5230\u590d\u6742\u548c\u654f\u611f\u6848\u4ef6\u65f6\u3002\u7136\u800c\u8fd9\u4e00\u4f53\u7cfb\u6709\u7740\u660e\u663e\u7684\u7f3a\u70b9\uff1a\u7b2c\u4e00\u3001\u7ec4\u6210\u5ba1\u5224\u59d4\u5458\u4f1a\u7684\u6cd5\u5b98\u6240\u5f97\u5230\u7684\u8d44\u6599\u53ea\u6709\u5148\u524d\u4e3b\u5ba1\u6cd5\u5b98\u51c6\u5907\u7684\u6848\u4ef6\u4e66\u9762\u62a5\u544a\uff0c\u56e0\u6b64\u4ed6\u4eec\u4e0d\u80fd\u7ecf\u5386\u5b9e\u9645\u7684\u6cd5\u5ead\u5ba1\u5224\u548c\u63a7\u8fa9\u53cc\u65b9\u7684\u8bc9\u8bbc\u8d28\u7591\uff0c\u53e6\u5916\uff0c\u7531\u4e8e\u6cd5\u9662\u9662\u957f\u7684\u7279\u6b8a\u5730\u4f4d\uff08\u7ecf\u5e38\u662f\u5f53\u5730\u653f\u6cd5\u59d4\u7684\u4e00\u5458<\/span>[12]<\/span><\/a>\uff09\u548c\u4ed6\u7684\u610f\u89c1\u5728\u51b3\u5b9a\u6848\u4ef6\u4e2d\u7684\u91cd\u8981\u4f5c\u7528\uff0c\u5ba1\u5224\u59d4\u5458\u4f1a\u5f80\u5f80\u53d8\u6210\u4e86\u5f53\u5730\u653f\u6cbb\u52bf\u529b\u5bf9\u5ba1\u5224\u7ed3\u679c\u4ea7\u751f\u5f71\u54cd\u7684\u901a\u9053\u548c\u5de5\u5177\u3002\u5728\u8fd9\u79cd\u60c5\u5f62\u4e0b\uff0c\u53cc\u65b9\u5f8b\u5e08\u7684\u8fa9\u8bba\u548c\u6297\u8fa9\uff08\u5c24\u5176\u662f\u5211\u4e8b\u6848\u4ef6\u7684\u88ab\u544a\u5f8b\u5e08\u548c\u8d77\u8bc9\u653f\u5e9c\u884c\u653f\u6848\u4ef6\u4e2d\u7684\u539f\u544a\u5f8b\u5e08\uff09\u90fd\u4e0d\u4f1a\u5bf9\u6848\u4ef6\u7684\u5224\u51b3\u7ed3\u679c\u4ea7\u751f\u5f71\u54cd\u3002\u5373\u4e2d\u56fd\u6cd5\u5b66\u754c\u666e\u904d\u8bdf\u75c5\u7684\u201c\u5ba1\u7684\u4e0d\u5224\uff0c\u5224\u7684\u4e0d\u5ba1\u201d\u3002\u5408\u8bae\u5ead\u7684\u6743\u529b\u7ecf\u5e38\u88ab\u4ee3\u66ff\u548c\u67b6\u7a7a\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

In addition, due to the fact that administrative precincts almost invariably coincide with judicial precincts, the local People\u2019s Congress (which due to the nature of the political system is largely dominated by Party\u2019s members) appoints all judges working in the courts within the same precincts. More importantly, courts rely almost entirely on the local government for their funding, personnel and resources. This creates additional difficulties for lawyers arguing a case in which local interests are at stake or a case deemed politically \u201csensitive\u201d from the perspective of the local government or the local Party\u2019s organization, which \u2013 as explained \u2013 oversees the overall administration of justice at local level through the Political and Legal Committee.<\/span><\/p>\n

\u6b64\u5916\uff0c\u57fa\u4e8e\u884c\u653f\u7ba1\u8f96\u533a\u4e0e\u53f8\u6cd5\u7ba1\u8f96\u533a\u7684\u4e00\u81f4\u6027\uff0c\u5f53\u5730\u7684\u4eba\u6c11\u5927\u8868\u5927\u4f1a\uff08\u7531\u4e8e\u653f\u6cbb\u4f53\u5236\u7684\u672c\u8d28\uff0c\u4eba\u5927\u5f88\u5927\u7a0b\u5ea6\u4e0a\u90fd\u662f\u7531\u515a\u5458\u7ec4\u6210\uff09\u4efb\u547d\u6240\u6709\u6cd5\u5b98\u5728\u540c\u4e00\u8f96\u533a\u8303\u56f4\u5185\u5de5\u4f5c\u3002\u66f4\u91cd\u8981\u7684\u662f\uff0c\u6cd5\u9662\u7684\u7ecf\u8d39\u3001\u4eba\u4e8b\u548c\u8d44\u6e90\u90fd\u5168\u90e8\u6709\u8d56\u4e8e\u5f53\u5730\u653f\u5e9c\uff0c\u8fd9\u5c31\u7ed9\u90a3\u4e9b\u4e3a\u4f1a\u4f7f\u5f97\u5f53\u5730\u653f\u5e9c\u5229\u76ca\u53d7\u635f\u7684\u6848\u4ef6\u548c\u88ab\u5f53\u5730\u653f\u5e9c\u6216\u8005\u5f53\u5730\u515a\u59d4\u4f1a\uff08\u6b63\u5982\u524d\u9762\u6240\u63d0\u5230\u7684\u90a3\u6837\uff0c\u8fd9\u4e00\u7ec4\u7ec7\u901a\u8fc7\u515a\u7ec4\u7ec7\u63a7\u5236\u7684\u653f\u6cd5\u59d4\u5458\u4f1a\uff0c\u76d1\u7ba1\u5f53\u5730\u7684\u53f8\u6cd5\u673a\u5173\uff09\u8ba4\u4e3a\u662f\u5177\u6709\u653f\u6cbb\u654f\u611f\u6027\u6848\u4ef6\u8fa9\u62a4\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\uff0c\u589e\u6dfb\u4e86\u66f4\u591a\u7684\u56f0\u96be\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

Finally, lower courts oftentimes seek \u201cguidance\u2019 on difficult or sensitive cases from higher level courts and<\/ins> ,<\/del>in order to ex<\/ins>clude themselves’ responsibility and keep identical with the upper power politically<\/ins>.<\/ins> <\/ins>This is called report to the authority in advance, in this<\/ins> <\/ins>way can the committee has a inner discussion about the nature of the case, whether the accused is guilty or not and decide<\/ins>s<\/ins> the measurement of the penalty,<\/ins> thus,<\/ins> <\/ins> <\/del>leading to the involvement of the higher level court in the case at an earlier stage than the appeal phase. <\/del>One of the reasons why lower court judges seek the opinion and support of higher level courts in their decision is that judges are rewarded and penalized based on a complex \u201cpoints\u201d system, with points taken away for the judge whose rulings have been overturned in appeal. This system, however, has the obvious downside of compromising the utility and importance of the appeal phase (as a matter of fact, most judgments \u2013 especially those in criminal cases \u2013 are confirmed in appeal \u2013and it makes more difficult to get the<\/ins> judicial remedies<\/ins> during the appeal, because the judge charged with the<\/ins> first instance<\/ins> <\/ins>is<\/ins> worried<\/ins> about the change, he<\/ins> will do what he can to dominate the court charged with the app<\/ins>eal period not to change his verdict<\/ins>, furthermore, the<\/ins> judge who already ha<\/ins>s<\/ins> given his reply in the inner discus<\/ins>sion won’t deny his own opinion. Therefore,<\/ins> in most cases, some<\/ins> important<\/ins> cases gained the attention both from the authority and the society<\/ins> are un<\/ins>likely to get a changed verdict when it is retrial.<\/ins> <\/ins> <\/ins> <\/ins><\/ins><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

\u6700\u540e\uff0c\u4f4e\u7ea7\u522b\u7684\u6cd5\u9662\u5728\u5904\u7406\u590d\u6742\u548c\u654f\u611f\u6027\u6848\u4ef6\u65f6\uff0c\u4e3a\u4e86\u514d\u9664\u81ea\u5df1\u7684\u8d23\u4efb\u548c\u8868\u793a\u653f\u6cbb\u4e00\u81f4\uff0c\u7ecf\u5e38\u5411\u4e0a\u7ea7\u6cd5\u9662\u5bfb\u6c42\u201c\u5e2e\u52a9\u201d\uff0c\u5373\u6240\u8c13\u7684\u201c\u4e8b\u5148\u6c47\u62a5\u8bf7\u793a\u201d\uff0c\u5bf9\u6848\u4ef6\u7684\u6027\u8d28\u3001\u80fd\u5426\u5b9a\u7f6a\uff0c\u5982\u4f55\u91cf\u5211\u8fdb\u884c\u4e8b\u5148\u7684\u5185\u90e8\u7814\u7a76\u7b54\u590d\uff0c\u63d0\u51fa\u6307\u5bfc\u6027\u610f\u89c1\u3002\u8fd9\u5c31\u5bfc\u81f4\u4e0a\u7ea7\u6cd5\u9662\u66f4\u65e9\u5730\u4ecb\u5165\u4e86\u6848\u4ef6\u800c\u4e0d\u662f\u5728\u72ec\u7acb\u5ba1\u5224\u7684\u4e0a\u8bc9\u9636\u6bb5\uff0c\u5bfc\u81f4\u4e86\u4e8c\u5ba1\u5b9e\u9645\u4e0a\u6210\u4e86\u4e00\u5ba1\u7ec8\u5ba1\u3002\u4f4e\u7ea7\u522b\u6cd5\u9662\u8fd9\u6837\u505a\u7684\u539f\u56e0\u4e4b\u4e00\uff0c\u662f\u56e0\u4e3a\u4e2d\u56fd\u6cd5\u5b98\u4eec\u5e74\u672b\u8003\u6838\u65f6\u4f1a\u6839\u636e\u201c\u529e\u6848\u8d28\u91cf\u201d\u90fd\u662f\u4f9d\u636e\u590d\u6742\u7684\u8bc4\u5206\u7cfb\u7edf\u6765\u83b7\u5f97\u5956\u52b1\u548c\u63a5\u53d7\u5904\u7f5a\uff0c\u5728\u8fd9\u4e2a\u4f53\u7cfb\u4e2d\uff0c\u90a3\u4e9b\u81ea\u5df1\u5ba1\u7406\u7684\u6848\u4ef6\u88ab\u5f53\u4e8b\u4eba\u63d0\u51fa\u4e0a\u8bc9\u800c\u4e8c\u5ba1\u6539\u5224\u548c\u53d1\u56de\u91cd\u5ba1\u7684\u6cd5\u5b98\u5c06\u4f1a\u88ab\u201c\u6263\u5206\u201d\u3002\u7136\u800c\uff0c\u8fd9\u79cd\u4f53\u7cfb\u53cd\u800c\u4f7f\u5f97\u4e0a\u8bc9\u9636\u6bb5\u7684\u53f8\u6cd5\u6551\u6d4e\u53d8\u5f97\u66f4\u4e3a\u56f0\u96be\uff0c\u56e0\u4e3a\u4e00\u5ba1\u7684\u6cd5\u5b98\u5f80\u5f80\u62c5\u5fc3\u6539\u5224\u800c\u7528\u5404\u79cd\u65b9\u5f0f\u5f71\u54cd\u4e8c\u5ba1\u6cd5\u9662\u7ef4\u6301\u539f\u5224\u4e0d\u8981\u6539\u5224\uff0c\u800c\u4e8b\u5148\u5185\u90e8\u7b54\u590d\u7684\u8fc7\u7684\u6cd5\u5b98\u81ea\u7136\u4e0d\u4f1a\u53bb\u81ea\u5df1\u5426\u5b9a\u81ea\u5df1\u3002\u56e0\u6b64\uff0c\u5728\u591a\u6570\u60c5\u51b5\u4e0b\uff0c\u4e00\u4e9b\u5b98\u65b9\u548c\u793e\u4f1a\u90fd\u5173\u6ce8\u7684\u91cd\u8981\u6848\u4ef6\uff0c\u4e2d\u56fd\u6cd5\u5ead\u7684\u4e8c\u5ba1\u6539\u5224\u662f\u975e\u5e38\u56f0\u96be\u7684\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

2. Case filing system<\/span><\/p>\n

Another major stumbling block for lawyers is the ability to get their case heard, due to the existence of the \u201cfiling division\u201d in each People\u2019s Court. <\/ins>In China, the court adopt the Examination and App<\/ins>roval system before it accepts and hears a case, which is<\/ins> different from the registration system, as a result,<\/ins> the court can refuse to hear a case even when it’s time to re<\/ins>alize the litigation rights.<\/ins><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

1\u3001\u7acb\u6848\u7cfb\u7edf<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

\u5f8b\u5e08\u6240\u9762\u4e34\u7684\u53e6\u5916\u4e00\u4e2a\u969c\u788d\u662f\u7acb\u6848\u96be\u7684\u95ee\u9898\uff0c\u8fd9\u662f\u7531\u6bcf\u4e2a\u4eba\u6c11\u6cd5\u9662\u90fd\u8bbe\u6709\u7acb\u6848\u5ead\u6240\u5bfc\u81f4\u7684\u3002\u4e2d\u56fd\u7684\u6cd5\u9662\u53d7\u7406\u6848\u4ef6\u662f\u5ba1\u6279\u5236\uff0c\u800c\u4e0d\u662f\u767b\u8bb0\u5236\u3002\u6709\u5f88\u591a\u7684\u6848\u4ef6\uff0c\u5728\u8bc9\u6743\u73af\u8282\u5c31\u88ab\u6cd5\u9662\u4e0d\u4e88\u53d7\u7406\u3002<\/ins><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

The case filing division works as a de facto “filter” for any lawsuits. It is separate from the trial division and gives judges substantial discretion in accepting or rejecting cases without affording any access or accountability to the public. Although it plays many other functions, for example, it can<\/ins> priorly<\/ins> avoid the irrational<\/ins> charge which misuses the ligation rights,<\/ins> <\/ins>some have noted that the case filing divisions is often an obstruction to the administration of justice because in certain “politically sensitive cases” it may deprive plaintiffs of their right to procedural and substantive due process<\/span>[13]<\/span><\/a>. Cases where a state department or administration is named as defendant, most of the actions taken by the Chinese government are f<\/ins>ree from the judicial examine,<\/ins> as well as \u201ccollective actions\u201d (i.e. actions with multiple plaintiffs) or mass mobilizing cases are those that are more difficult to file. The lack of clear and uniform guidance under national law or Supreme People\u2019s Court interpretations about what types of cases can be filed creates additional difficulties for lawyers. Sometimes, several courts will join hands<\/ins> with the government to enact some documents stating that cer<\/ins>tain kinds of cases can not be heard, such as the nationalization of the coal mine in Sha<\/ins>nxi ; sometimes, the courts will offer special protections tow<\/ins>ard the government and some state-owned enterprises, even may leading to violate the<\/ins> law<\/ins> regulations<\/ins>, such as<\/ins> a famous<\/ins> tort<\/ins> case: the descendant of the Ming dynast<\/ins> cellar sues the Yin Bin government and<\/ins> WULIANGYE Group<\/ins>.<\/ins><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

<\/span> \u8fd9\u79cd\u505a\u6cd5\u5b9e\u9645\u4e0a\u662f\u5bf9\u6240\u6709\u8bc9\u8bbc\u8fdb\u884c\u201c\u8fc7\u6ee4\u201d\uff0c\u4e0e\u5ba1\u5224\u5ead\u4e0d\u540c\uff0c\u7acb\u6848\u65f6\u5148\u7ecf\u8fc7\u7acb\u6848\u5ead\u7ed9\u4e86\u6cd5\u5b98\uff0c\u5728\u4e0d\u8003\u8651\u516c\u4f17\u5229\u76ca\u3001\u5c1a\u6ca1\u6709\u7ecf\u8fc7\u5b9e\u4f53\u5ba1\u7406\u7684\u524d\u63d0\u4e0b\u7684\u5b9e\u8d28\u4e0a\u7684\u81ea\u7531\u88c1\u91cf\u6743\u3002\u5c3d\u7ba1\u8fd9\u4e00\u4e3e\u63aa\u53d1\u6325\u4e86\u5f88\u591a\u5176\u4ed6\u7684\u4f5c\u7528\uff08\u6bd4\u5982\u4f7f\u4e00\u4e9b\u6ee5\u7528\u8bc9\u6743\u7684\u65e0\u7406\u8d77\u8bc9\u884c\u4e3a\u88ab\u4e8b\u5148\u9632\u6b62\uff09\uff0c\u4f46\u662f\u8bb8\u591a\u4eba\u6307\u51fa\u8bbe\u7acb\u7acb\u6848\u5ead\u662f\u53f8\u6cd5\u516c\u6b63\u7684\u4e00\u4e2a\u969c\u788d\uff0c\u56e0\u4e3a\u5728\u67d0\u4e9b\u7279\u5b9a\u7684\u201c\u653f\u6cbb\u654f\u611f\u201d\u7684\u6848\u4ef6\u4e2d\uff0c\u539f\u544a\u6b63\u5f53\u7684\u7a0b\u5e8f\u6027\u6743\u529b<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span>[14]<\/span><\/a>\u88ab\u5265\u593a\u3002\u8fd8\u6709\u4e9b\u6848\u4ef6\u662f\u5f88\u96be\u7acb\u6848\u7684\uff0c\u4f8b\u5982\u4ee5\u653f\u5e9c\u6216\u884c\u653f\u673a\u5173\u4f5c\u4e3a\u88ab\u544a\u7684\u6848\u4ef6\uff0c\u4e2d\u56fd\u653f\u5e9c\u7684\u5f88\u591a\u884c\u4e3a\u4e0d\u53d7\u53f8\u6cd5\u7684\u5ba1\u67e5\u3001\u6216\u8005\u662f\u96c6\u4f53\u8bc9\u8bbc\uff08\u6709\u4f17\u591a\u539f\u544a\u53c2\u4e0e\u7684\u516c\u76ca\u8bc9\u8bbc\u6848\u4ef6\uff09\u4ee5\u53ca\u7fa4\u4f53\u6027\u6848\u4ef6\u3002\u56fd\u5bb6\u7acb\u6cd5\u548c\u6700\u9ad8\u6cd5\u9662\u89e3\u91ca\uff0c\u5bf9\u53ef\u7acb\u6848\u5ba1\u7406\u7684\u6848\u4ef6\u7c7b\u578b\u6ca1\u6709\u4e00\u4e2a\u6e05\u6670\u7edf\u4e00\u7684\u89c4\u5b9a\uff0c\u6709\u7684\u6cd5\u9662\u4f1a\u540c\u653f\u5e9c\u4e00\u8d77\u8054\u5408\u53d1\u51fa\u6587\u4ef6\uff0c\u67d0\u4e00\u79cd\u6848\u4ef6\u4e0d\u51c6\u53d7\u7406\uff08\u4f8b\u5982\u5c71\u897f\u7684\u7164\u77ff\u56fd\u6709\u5316\u6848\u4ef6\uff09\uff0c\u6709\u7684\u6cd5\u9662\u4f1a\u5bf9\u653f\u5e9c\u548c\u5927\u4f01\u4e1a\u8fdb\u884c\u7279\u522b\u7684\u4fdd\u62a4\uff0c\u8fdd\u80cc\u6cd5\u5f8b\u89c4\u5b9a\u4e0d\u53d7\u7406\u539f\u544a\u7684\u8bc9\u8bbc\uff08\u4f8b\u5982\u8457\u540d\u7684\u660e\u4ee3\u53e4\u7a96\u7684\u4f20\u4eba\u8bc9\u5b9c\u5bbe\u5e02\u653f\u5e9c\u548c\u4e94\u7cae\u6db2\u516c\u53f8\u4fb5\u6743\u6848\uff09\uff0c\u8fd9\u7ed9\u5f8b\u5e08\u4eec\u589e\u6dfb\u4e86\u989d\u5916\u7684\u56f0\u96be\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

Speaking to litigators in China, one of the most often-heard complaint is precisely the inability to file a lawsuit due to the decision taken by the filing division. There seem to be little avenues for lawyers to circumvent the decision of the filing division and have their case heard. This remains particularly true for administrative litigation cases.<\/span><\/p>\n

\u5728\u4e0e\u4e2d\u56fd\u5f8b\u5e08\u7684\u4ea4\u8c08\u4e2d\uff0c\u5176\u4e2d\u4e00\u4e2a\u88ab\u63d0\u53ca\u6700\u591a\u7684\u62b1\u6028\u5c31\u662f\u56e0\u4e3a\u8bbe\u6709\u7acb\u6848\u5ead\u800c\u5bfc\u81f4\u7684\u201c\u7acb\u6848\u96be\u201d\u7684\u95ee\u9898\uff0c\u800c\u4e14\u4f3c\u4e4e\u4e5f\u6ca1\u6709\u4efb\u4f55\u9014\u5f84\u53bb\u9632\u6b62\u5b83\uff0c\u8fd9\u79cd\u60c5\u51b5\u5728\u884c\u653f\u8bc9\u8bbc\u6848\u4ef6\u4e2d\u5c24\u5176\u660e\u663e\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

3. Lack of administrative autonomy for lawyers<\/span><\/p>\n

As mentioned above, lawyers, law firms and bar associations are subject to the administration and supervision of the local judicial bureau. Though<\/ins> it is stated that the judicial bureau just “instruct”<\/ins> them, in reality, the right to renew annal license and to<\/ins> punish the lawyer through canceling their licenses is<\/ins> curbed by the bureau.<\/ins> <\/ins> <\/del>Although the Chairman and the Vice Chairman of the All China Lawyers Association and of the vast majority of the local bar associations are legal practitioners, the judicial bureau maintains substantial control over the process of selecting the bar associations\u2019 leadership through various means, as evidenced also by the recent Beijing Bar Association case<\/span>[15]<\/span><\/a>. Actually,<\/ins> <\/ins>nearly all the bar associations i<\/ins>n the<\/ins> other provinces<\/ins> are formed like this, only in Shenzhen<\/ins> Guangzhou which is the most opening city in China had<\/ins> the bar association elected by themself, however, it<\/ins> was corrected into the same model like others.<\/ins> <\/ins><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

The local bureau of justice is also able to exercise substantial control on lawyers and law firms through the annual reporting and registration renewal system. Although denial of renewal or withdrawal of a license for a law firm or lawyer constitute exceptions rather than the rule, they play an important deterrent role for any law firm wishing to maintain \u201cgood relationship\u201d with the local justice bureau (on which it relies for the ability to continue to be in business) as well as with the bar association itself. Moreover, the need to verify whether an application meets the \u201cgood conduct\u201d requirement under the Lawyers Law can also involve a review of the applicant\u2019s political views and compliance with state-endorsed policies such as the one-child policy. More recently, the MOJ has circulated a notice reminding all local bar associations to require lawyers who intend to apply for or renew a practicing certificate to swear allegiance to the Constitution, the law, but also the Party. The consequence of a failure to take the oath according to the requirements are unclear, and will probably be more clear if and when there will be particular individuals who will refuse to take such an oath. In fact, this kind of oath is not<\/ins> actually taken in<\/ins> many places.<\/ins><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

2\u3001\u5f8b\u5e08\u7f3a\u4e4f\u81ea\u6cbb\u6743<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

\u524d\u6587\u5df2\u7ecf\u63d0\u5230\uff0c\u5f8b\u5e08\u3001\u5f8b\u6240\u548c\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\u90fd\u8981\u7531\u5f53\u5730\u53f8\u6cd5\u5c40\u8fdb\u884c\u7ba1\u7406\u548c\u76d1\u7763\u3002\u867d\u7136\u300a\u5f8b\u5e08\u6cd5\u300b\u4e2d\u89c4\u5b9a\u7684\u662f\u201c\u6307\u5bfc\u201d\uff0c\u5b9e\u9645\u4e0a\u4e2d\u56fd\u5f8b\u5e08\u7684\u6bcf\u5e74\u7684\u6267\u7167\u5e74\u68c0\u548c\u540a\u9500\u6267\u7167\u7684\u5904\u7f5a\u6743\u90fd\u5728\u53f8\u6cd5\u5385\uff08\u5c40\uff09\u3002\u540c\u65f6\uff0c\u4e2d\u56fd\u5f8b\u5e08\u8fd8\u53d7\u653f\u5e9c\u8272\u5f69\u6d53\u539a\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\u7684\u7ba1\u7406\u3002\u8fd9\u4e2a\u534f\u4f1a\u5f80\u5f80\u4e0d\u662f\u4e00\u4e2a\u5f8b\u5e08\u81ea\u6cbb\u7ec4\u7ec7\uff0c\u800c\u662f\u4e00\u4e2a\u4ee5\u670d\u52a1\u7684\u65b9\u5f0f\u51fa\u73b0\u7684\u534a\u653f\u5e9c\u7684\u673a\u6784\u3002\u5f80\u5f80\u5e2e\u52a9\u653f\u5e9c\u5bf9\u5f8b\u5e08\u8fdb\u884c\u7ba1\u7406\u548c\u653f\u6cbb\u6027\u7684\u9650\u5236\u3002\u867d\u7136\u7edd\u5927\u591a\u6570\u7701\u533a\u7684\u4e2d\u56fd\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\u7684\u4f1a\u957f\u548c\u526f\u4f1a\u957f\u90fd\u662f\u7531\u5f8b\u5e08\u62c5\u4efb\uff0c\u4f46\u662f\u53f8\u6cd5\u5c40\u4f9d\u7136\u901a\u8fc7\u5404\u79cd\u9014\u5f84\u6765\u4ee5\u5b89\u6392\u548c\u9009\u4e3e\u8ffd\u8ba4\u7684\u65b9\u5f0f\u4ea7\u751f\u5f8b\u534f\u7684\u9886\u5bfc\uff0c\u8fd9\u6837\u4ed6\u4eec\u5b9e\u9645\u4e0a\u638c\u63e1\u4e86\u63a7\u5236\u6743\u3002\u6700\u8fd1\u5317\u4eac\u5f8b\u534f\u7684\u6848\u4f8b\u5c31\u662f\u4e00\u4e2a\u5f88\u597d\u7684\u8bc1\u660e\u3002\u5b9e\u9645\u4e0a\u5176\u4ed6\u7684\u6240\u6709\u7701\u4efd\u548c\u5e02\u4e00\u7ea7\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\u57fa\u672c\u4e0a\u90fd\u662f\u8fd9\u6837\u4ea7\u751f\u7684\u3002\u53ea\u6709\u4e2d\u56fd\u6700\u4e3a\u5f00\u653e\u7684\u5e7f\u4e1c\u7701\u6df1\u5733\u5e02\u4ea7\u751f\u8fc7\u4e00\u5c4a\u771f\u6b63\u5f8b\u5e08\u81ea\u5df1\u9009\u4e3e\u7684\u5f8b\u534f\uff0c\u5176\u540e\u4e5f\u88ab\u4fee\u6b63\u4e3a\u5176\u4ed6\u5730\u65b9\u4e00\u6837\u7684\u6a21\u5f0f\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

\u5f53\u5730\u7684\u53f8\u6cd5\u5c40\u901a\u8fc7\u6bcf\u5e74\u7684\u62a5\u544a\u548c\u6267\u7167\u6bcf\u5e74\u4e00\u6b21\u7684\u66f4\u65b0\u6ce8\u518c\uff08\u4e2d\u56fd\u901a\u79f0\u4e3a\u201c\u5e74\u68c0\u201d\uff09\u7cfb\u7edf\uff0c\u5b9e\u9645\u4e0a\u64cd\u63a7\u7740\u5f8b\u5e08\u548c\u5f8b\u6240\uff0c\u62d2\u7edd\u66f4\u65b0\u548c\u653e\u5f03\u6267\u7167\u5bf9\u4e8e\u4e00\u4e2a\u5f8b\u5e08\u6216\u5f8b\u6240\u6765\u8bf4\u610f\u56fe\u5473\u7740\u5931\u4e1a\u6216\u4e0d\u518d\u5f53\u5f8b\u5e08\u3002\u5bf9\u4efb\u4f55\u4e00\u4e2a\u60f3\u8981\u4e0e\u53f8\u6cd5\u5c40\u201c\u4fdd\u6301\u826f\u597d\u5173\u7cfb\u201d\u7684\u5f8b\u6240\u4ee5\u53ca\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\u672c\u8eab\u6765\u8bf4\uff0c\u8fd9\u79cd\u63aa\u65bd\u662f\u5177\u6709\u5f88\u5f3a\u7684\u5a01\u6151\u529b\u7684\u3002\u800c\u4e14\uff0c\u8003\u67e5\u7533\u8bf7\u8005\u662f\u5426\u7b26\u5408\u5f8b\u5e08\u6cd5\u4e2d\u6240\u89c4\u5b9a\u7684\u201c\u54c1\u884c\u826f\u597d\u201d\uff0c\u4e3b\u8981\u7684\u662f\u6307\u653f\u6cbb\u4e0a\u662f\u4e0d\u662f\u540c\u5b98\u65b9\u7684\u8981\u6c42\u4fdd\u6301\u4e00\u81f4\u3002\u5176\u4ed6\u5982\u9075\u4ece\u57fa\u672c\u56fd\u7b56\u7684\u60c5\u51b5(\u4f8b\u5982\u8ba1\u5212\u751f\u80b2\uff09\u4e5f\u8003\u8651\u5728\u5185\u7684\u3002\u6700\u8fd1\uff0c\u53f8\u6cd5\u90e8\uff08MOJ\uff09\u53d1\u5e03\u4e86\u4e00\u4e2a\u901a\u77e5\uff0c\u544a\u77e5\u6240\u6709\u5f53\u5730\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\uff0c\u8981\u6c42\u51e1\u662f\u8981\u8fdb\u884c\u6267\u7167\u5e74\u68c0\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\u90fd\u8981\u53d1\u8a93\u6548\u5fe0\u4e8e\u515a\u548c\u5baa\u6cd5\u3001\u6cd5\u5f8b\u3002\u7531\u4e8e\u8981\u6c42\u89c4\u5b9a\u7684\u4e0d\u660e\u786e\uff0c\u53ef\u80fd\u53ea\u6709\u5f53\u67d0\u4e2a\u4e2a\u4eba\u4e0d\u8fdb\u884c\u5ba3\u8a93\u7684\u65f6\u5019\uff0c\u6211\u4eec\u624d\u80fd\u77e5\u9053\u5176\u540e\u679c\u662f\u4ec0\u4e48\u3002\u4e8b\u5b9e\u4e0a\uff0c\u5f88\u591a\u7684\u5730\u65b9\u8fd9\u79cd\u5ba3\u8a93\u4e5f\u5e76\u4e0d\u771f\u6b63\u8fdb\u884c\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

The approach to sanctioning and punishment of lawyers who behave in an unethical manner or in violation of the rules is also a \u201ctop-down\u201d , administrative one. MOJ and the local counterparts conduct periodical \u201ccampaigns\u201d against unethical behavior in the legal profession. In one particular campaign in 2004 several hundred lawyers were punished for violation of the code of ethic.(as the s<\/ins>tatistics are inaccurate, the number of the punished lawyer<\/ins>s is far more than that)<\/ins>\u00a0 In recent years, the power to impose certain sanctions on lawyers has progressively shifted towards the bar associations, but the MOJ and its local counterparts retain the power to suspend the license or deny renewal, which is for obvious reasons the most serious sanction. <\/span><\/p>\n

\u5904\u7f5a\u884c\u4e3a\u4e0d\u7aef\u548c\u8fdd\u53cd\u89c4\u5b9a\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\uff0c\u5176\u65b9\u6cd5\u4e5f\u662f\u4e00\u9053\u201c\u5723\u65e8\u201d\uff0c\u53f8\u6cd5\u90e8\u548c\u5f53\u5730\u53f8\u6cd5\u5c40\u4e3a\u62b5\u5236\u6cd5\u5f8b\u4ece\u4e1a\u8005\u7684\u4e0d\u826f\u884c\u5f84\uff0c\u53d1\u8d77\u4e86\u5b9a\u671f\u7684\u6574\u987f\u6d3b\u52a8\u30022004\u5e74\u7684\u6574\u987f\u6d3b\u52a8\u4e2d\uff0c\u51e0\u767e\u540d\uff08\u7531\u4e8e\u6570\u636e\u4e0d\u660e\uff0c\u5b9e\u9645\u4e0a\u8fd9\u6837\u7684\u5904\u7406\u6570\u636e\u8fdc\u4e0d\u6b62\u6b64\u6570\uff09\u5f8b\u5e08\u56e0\u8fdd\u53cd\u804c\u4e1a\u51c6\u5219\u800c\u53d7\u7f5a\u3002\u6700\u8fd1\u51e0\u5e74\uff0c\u5bf9\u5f8b\u5e08\u8fdb\u884c\u5904\u7f5a\u7684\u6743\u529b\uff0c\u6e10\u6e10\u5730\u8f6c\u79fb\u5230\u4e86\u5f8b\u534f\u7684\u624b\u4e0a\uff0c\u4f46\u662f\u53f8\u6cd5\u90e8\u548c\u5f53\u5730\u53f8\u6cd5\u5c40\u4f9d\u7136\u638c\u63a7\u7740\u6267\u7167\u7684\u9881\u53d1\u548c\u540a\u9500\u7684\u6743\u529b\uff0c\u4ee5\u53ca\u5ef6\u8fdf\u548c\u62d2\u7edd\u66f4\u65b0\u6267\u7167\u7684\u6743\u529b\uff0c\u800c\u8fd9\u4e9b\u65e0\u7591\u662f\u6700\u4e25\u5389\u7684\u60e9\u7f5a\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

Both the bar associations and the MOJ can also issue instructions to lawyers on how to handle specific types of cases, especially those defined \u201csensitive\u201d or \u201cimportant\u201d. For instance, in May 2006 the ACLA issued a formal Guiding Opinion to all lawyers associations and law firms in China on accepting and handling collective cases (like mass tort cases) and cases of \u201cgreat social significance\u201d like appropriation, environment pollution and rights protection. In particular the ACLA recommended that local lawyers associations should \u201caid, guide and supervise\u201d lawyers in handling such cases and that caution shall be placed in briefing the media, especially foreign media.<\/span>[16]<\/span><\/a> More recently, in the aftermath of the deadly accident involving a high-speed train nearby Wenzhou in 2011, the Zhejiang province bar association circulated a notice warning lawyers in the province from representing tort cases related to the incident, warning them to pay attention to t<\/ins>he overall situation and their own safety. Also, the judicial bureau<\/ins> established<\/ins> a<\/ins> regulation<\/ins> stating that the lawyers<\/ins> in charge with the cases concerning about the political, religion and some sensitive cases<\/ins> are not allowed to commit a not guilty defense and they should report to the local<\/ins> judicial bureau ahead of the defense. What’s more, some<\/ins> lawyers with strong-willed defending can be expelled<\/ins> from the court and recalled by the bureau that<\/ins> sent out his license, since then, he is not allowed to take part<\/ins> in the defense, such as the famous Li<\/ins> Zhuang case, Beihai case, Xiaohe case in<\/ins> Guiyang.<\/ins><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\u548c\u53f8\u6cd5\u90e8\u90fd\u6709\u6743\u4e0b\u53d1\u5bf9\u4e8e\u5f8b\u5e08\u5982\u4f55\u5904\u7406\u4e00\u4e9b\u7279\u6b8a\u6848\u4ef6\u7684\u6307\u5bfc\u6027\u610f\u89c1\uff0c\u5c24\u5176\u662f\u90a3\u4e9b\u88ab\u79f0\u4e3a\u201c\u654f\u611f\u6027\u201d\u548c\u201c\u91cd\u5927\u7684\u201d\u6848\u4ef6\u3002\u4f8b\u5982\uff0c2006\u5e745\u6708\u4e2d\u534e\u5168\u56fd\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\u9881\u5e03\u4e86\u5bf9\u4e8e\u4ee3\u7406\u96c6\u4f53\u6027\u6848\u4ef6\uff08\u5982\u96c6\u4f53\u4fb5\u6743\uff09\u548c\u62e8\u6b3e\u3001\u73af\u5883\u6c61\u67d3\u3001\u7ef4\u6743\u7b49\u201c\u6709\u8f83\u5927\u793e\u4f1a\u5f71\u54cd\u529b\u7684\u201d\u6848\u4ef6\u7684\u6307\u5bfc\u610f\u89c1\u3002\u4e2d\u534e\u5f8b\u534f\u7279\u522b\u6307\u51fa\u5f53\u5730\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\u5e94\u8be5\u201c\u5e2e\u52a9\u3001\u6307\u5bfc\u548c\u76d1\u7763\u201d\u5904\u7406\u8fd9\u4e9b\u6848\u4ef6\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\uff0c\u5e76\u4e14\u8981\u8c28\u614e\u5904\u7406\u5a92\u4f53\u4fe1\u606f\u7684\u53d1\u5e03\uff0c\u5c24\u5176\u662f\u56fd\u5916\u5a92\u4f53\u8206\u8bba\u3002<\/span>[17]<\/span><\/a>\u6700\u8fd1\uff0c\u7ee72011\u5e74\u6e29\u5dde\u9ad8\u94c1\u4e8b\u6545\u4e4b\u540e\uff0c\u6d59\u6c5f\u7701\u6e29\u5dde\u5e02\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\u5c31\u53d1\u5e03\u4e86\u4e00\u5219\u901a\u77e5\uff0c\u4ee5\u6b64\u63d0\u9192\u5e02\u5185\u4ee3\u7406\u6b64\u6b21\u4e8b\u4ef6\u4fb5\u6743\u6848\u4ef6\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\u8981\u6ce8\u610f\u5927\u5c40\u548c\u81ea\u8eab\u7684\u5b89\u5168\u3002\u53f8\u6cd5\u5c40\u548c\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\u8fd8\u5bf9\u4e00\u4e9b\u653f\u6cbb\u6027\u3001\u5b97\u6559\u7c7b\u3001\u654f\u611f\u7c7b\u7684\u6848\u4ef6\uff0c\u89c4\u5b9a\u4e86\u4e0d\u51c6\u5f8b\u5e08\u4f5c\u65e0\u7f6a\u8fa9\u62a4\u548c\u8fa9\u62a4\u524d\u8981\u4e8b\u5148\u5411\u53f8\u6cd5\u5c40\u62a5\u544a\u7684\u5236\u5ea6\u3002\u6709\u7684\u91cd\u5927\u6848\u4ef6\u4e2d\u8fa9\u62a4\u575a\u51b3\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\uff0c\u88ab\u6cd5\u9662\u9010\u51fa\u6cd5\u5ead\uff0c\u5e76\u88ab\u53d1\u653e\u6267\u7167\u7684\u4e3b\u7ba1\u53f8\u6cd5\u5c40\u548c\u5f8b\u5e08\u534f\u4f1a\u53ec\u56de\uff0c\u4e0d\u5f97\u53c2\u52a0\u8fa9\u62a4\u3002\u6bd4\u5982\u8457\u540d\u7684\u5317\u4eac\u674e\u5e84\u6848\u3001\u5e7f\u897f\u5317\u6d77\u6848\u3001\u8d35\u9633\u5c0f\u6cb3\u6848\u4e2d\uff0c\u90fd\u53d1\u751f\u4e86\u8fd9\u6837\u7684\u60c5\u51b5\u3002 <\/del><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

Category 2<\/span><\/b><\/p>\n

1.. Constraints Faced by Criminal Lawyers<\/span><\/p>\n

Criminal defense lawyers are probably the category subject to the most significant constraints. <\/span><\/p>\n

First, there remains a gap between the rights given to defense lawyers under the law and the rights they are actually able to enjoy, especially in an overall legal culture that sees the police, the prosecution and the courts as having a more important role. Second, there continue to remain inconsistencies between the Criminal Procedure Law and the Lawyers Law, which go to the detriment of the lawyers. The new Criminal Procedure Law which will<\/ins> go into effect in January 1st<\/sup> i<\/ins>n 2013 made some coordinations to the problem,<\/ins> however, whether the conflict can be substantially<\/ins> solved is still unknown.<\/ins><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

\u7b2c\u4e8c\u5927\u7c7b<\/b><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

4\u3001\u5211\u4e8b\u8fa9\u62a4\u5f8b\u5e08\u9762\u4e34\u7684\u9650\u5236<\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

\u5211\u4e8b\u8fa9\u62a4\u5f8b\u5e08\u6050\u6015\u662f\u53d7\u5230\u9650\u5236\u6700\u591a\u7684\u4e00\u7c7b\u5f8b\u5e08\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

\u9996\u5148\uff0c\u5728\u666e\u904d\u8ba4\u4e3a\u8b66\u5bdf\u3001\u6cd5\u9662\u548c\u68c0\u5bdf\u9662\u6709\u91cd\u8981\u4f5c\u7528\u7684\u6cd5\u5f8b\u73af\u5883\u4e0b\uff0c\u8fa9\u62a4\u5f8b\u5e08\u5b9e\u9645\u80fd\u591f\u884c\u4f7f\u7684\u6743\u5229\u4e0e\u6cd5\u5f8b\u6240\u8d4b\u4e88\u4ed6\u7684\u6743\u5229\u88ab\u4e25\u91cd\u538b\u7f29\u3002\u5176\u6b21\uff0c\u300a\u5211\u4e8b\u8bc9\u8bbc\u6cd5\u300b\u548c\u300a\u5f8b\u5e08\u6cd5\u300b\u4e2d\u7684\u76f8\u5173\u89c4\u5b9a\uff0c\u4e00\u76f4\u5b58\u5728\u7740\u4e0d\u7edf\u4e00\uff0c\u8fd9\u4e5f\u9020\u6210\u4e86\u5bf9\u5f8b\u5e08\u7684\u5371\u5bb3\u3002\u5c06\u4e8e2013\u5e741\u67081\u65e5\u5b9e\u65bd\u7684\u65b0\u7684\u300a\u5211\u4e8b\u8bc9\u8bbc\u6cd5\u300b\u5bf9\u8fd9\u4e2a\u95ee\u9898\u8fdb\u884c\u4e86\u4e00\u4e9b\u534f\u8c03\u548c\u4e00\u81f4\u5316\uff0c\u4f46\u662f\u80fd\u5426\u771f\u6b63\u89e3\u51b3\u8fd9\u79cd\u77db\u76fe\u4ecd\u7136\u662f\u4e2a\u672a\u77e5\u6570\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

In particular, under the Lawyers Law, a lawyer has the right to meet the suspect (during investigations) or the defendant (during the trial) and to \u201cbe informed of matters pertaining to the case\u201d simply on the strength of what are often referred to as \u201cThree Certificates\u201d (his lawyer\u2019s license, a letter of engagement from the client and \u2013 importantly \u2013 a letter from a law firm confirming that the lawyer is employed there). <\/span><\/p>\n

\u5c24\u5176\u662f\u4ee5\u4e0b\u8fd9\u4e9b\u5185\u5bb9\uff0c\u5f8b\u5e08\u6cd5\u4e2d\u89c4\u5b9a\uff1a\u5f8b\u5e08\u5728\u4fa6\u67e5\u9636\u6bb5\u6709\u4f1a\u89c1\u72af\u7f6a\u5acc\u7591\u4eba\u7684\u6743\u5229\uff0c\u5728\u68c0\u5bdf\u5ba1\u67e5\u8d77\u8bc9\u9636\u6bb5\u3001\u5ba1\u5224\u9636\u6bb5\u6709\u4f1a\u89c1\u88ab\u544a\u4eba\u7684\u6743\u5229\uff0c\u8fd9\u4e9b\u6743\u5229\u7684\u5b9e\u73b0\u4ec5\u4ec5\u51fa\u793a\u8981\u6c42\u7684\u201c\u5f8b\u5e08\u8bc1\u3001\u59d4\u6258\u4e66\u3001\u5f8b\u5e08\u4f1a\u89c1\u51fd\u201d\u8fd9\u201c\u4e09\u8bc1\u201d\u5373\u53ef\u4f1a\u89c1\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

In practice, however, criminal lawyers continue to have difficulties meeting clients during the police investigations, often with no reason given. The balance of power is too much tipped in favor of the public security authorities for the lawyer to be able to challenge the police\u2019s behavior. Since most of the criminal investigations are conducted un<\/ins>der the situation that the suspect is detained in the<\/ins> lockup place for prisoners awaiting trial, the prosecut<\/ins>or and the police can manipulate the power to constrain the suspect<\/ins> for the sake of the convenience of the investigation, not allowing him to meet with h<\/ins>is lawyer, in this way, they can get more testimony<\/ins>.<\/ins> The difficulty in meeting clients is also due to the fact that legal advisers not necessarily are notified by the police that their client has been detained and where. Recent changes to the Criminal Procedure Law require the police to notify the family of the suspect in most cases (however, still with important exceptions as we will see below) and it is hoped that this will also allow the defense counsel to be properly and timely notified. Still, the consent of the public security bureau for a lawyer to meet his client is de facto required in most cases, whereas such approval should only be required under the law in \u201cimportant, complicated cases and cases concerning state secrets\u201d. The Criminal Procedure Law does not give lawyers any meaningful legal remedy in this respect against a recalcitrant public security bureau.<\/span><\/p>\n

\u800c\u5728\u5b9e\u9645\u64cd\u4f5c\u4e2d\uff0c\u5211\u4e8b\u8fa9\u62a4\u5f8b\u5e08\u7ecf\u5e38\u5728\u4fa6\u67e5\u9636\u6bb5\u65e0\u6cd5\u4f1a\u89c1\u5230\u81ea\u5df1\u7684\u59d4\u6258\u4eba\uff0c\u800c\u4e14\u5f80\u5f80\u6ca1\u6709\u5f97\u5230\u4efb\u4f55\u5408\u7406\u7684\u89e3\u91ca\u3002\u529b\u91cf\u5bf9\u6bd4\u7684\u60ac\u6b8a\u5f80\u5f80\u4f7f\u5f8b\u5e08\u65e0\u6cd5\u4e0e\u516c\u5b89\u90e8\u95e8\u7684\u8fd9\u79cd\u884c\u4e3a\u5bf9\u6297\u3002\u7531\u4e8e\u4e2d\u56fd\u7684\u5211\u4e8b\u4fa6\u67e5\u91c7\u53d6\u7684\u662f\u5927\u90e8\u5206\u7f81\u62bc\u4fa6\u67e5\uff0c\u770b\u5b88\u6240\u662f\u7531\u516c\u5b89\u673a\u5173\u7ba1\u7406\uff0c\u56e0\u6b64\u68c0\u5bdf\u9662\u548c\u516c\u5b89\u5c40\u8fdc\u7528\u8fd9\u4e2a\u6743\u529b\uff0c\u4e3a\u4e86\u4fa6\u67e5\u7684\u65b9\u4fbf\uff0c\u9650\u5236\u5acc\u7591\u4eba\u7684\u6743\u529b\uff0c\u4e0d\u8ba9\u4ed6\u4eec\u89c1\u5230\u5f8b\u5e08\uff0c\u4ee5\u65b9\u4fbf\u83b7\u53d6\u5230\u6709\u7f6a\u53e3\u4f9b\u3002\u5b9e\u9645\u4e0a\u5927\u90e8\u5206\u6848\u4ef6\uff0c\u5f8b\u5e08\u90fd\u9700\u8981\u53d6\u5f97\u516c\u5b89\u673a\u5173\u7684\u540c\u610f\u624d\u53ef\u4f1a\u89c1\u5f53\u4e8b\u4eba\uff0c\u53e6\u5916\u4e00\u4e2a\u9020\u6210\u4f1a\u89c1\u96be\u7684\u539f\u56e0\uff0c\u662f\u56e0\u4e3a\u4fa6\u67e5\u673a\u5173\u6545\u610f\u4e0d\u544a\u77e5\u5acc\u7591\u4eba\u5bb6\u5c5e\u548c\u4ed6\u7684\u5f8b\u5e08\uff0c\u5176\u5f53\u4e8b\u4eba\u5df2\u88ab\u62d8\u7559\u548c\u62d8\u7559\u5730\u70b9\u3002\u6700\u8fd1\u65b0\u300a\u5211\u4e8b\u8bc9\u8bbc\u6cd5\u300b\u4fee\u6b63\u6848\u89c4\u5b9a\u7edd\u5927\u591a\u6570\u60c5\u5f62\u4e0b\uff0c\u516c\u5b89\u673a\u5173\u8981\u544a\u77e5\u72af\u7f6a\u5acc\u7591\u4eba\u7684\u5bb6\u5c5e\uff08\u4f46\u662f\uff0c\u4e00\u4e9b\u91cd\u8981\u7684\u4f8b\u5916\u60c5\u5f62\u4f1a\u5728\u4e0b\u6587\u4e2d\u770b\u5230\uff09\uff0c\u800c\u4e14\u5e0c\u671b\u4ed6\u4eec\u4e5f\u53ef\u4ee5\u9002\u5f53\u5730\u53ca\u65f6\u5730\u544a\u77e5\u72af\u7f6a\u5acc\u7591\u4eba\u7684\u8fa9\u62a4\u5f8b\u5e08\u3002\u53ea\u6709\u90a3\u4e9b\u6cd5\u5f8b\u89c4\u5b9a\u7684\u201c\u91cd\u5927\u6848\u4ef6\u3001\u590d\u6742\u6848\u4ef6\u548c\u5173\u7cfb\u56fd\u5bb6\u79d8\u5bc6\u6848\u4ef6\u201d\u4f8b\u5916\u6848\u4ef6\u624d\u9700\u8981\u5f97\u5230\u516c\u5b89\u673a\u5173\u7684\u5141\u8bb8\u3002\u4ee5\u671f\u7edd\u5927\u591a\u6570\u5211\u6848\u80fd\u591f\u5f97\u5230\u65e0\u969c\u788d\u7684\u4f1a\u89c1\u3002\u4f46\u662f\uff0c\u8fd9\u4e2a\u65b0\u7684\u300a\u5211\u4e8b\u8bc9\u8bbc\u6cd5\u300b\u540c\u6837\u6ca1\u6709\u7ed9\u5f8b\u5e08\u5728\u5bf9\u6297\u987d\u56fa\u3001\u4e0d\u670d\u4ece\u6cd5\u5f8b\u7684\u516c\u5b89\u673a\u5173\u65f6\uff0c\u5e26\u6765\u4efb\u4f55\u5b9e\u8d28\u6027\u6709\u610f\u4e49\u7684\u6cd5\u5f8b\u5e2e\u52a9\u3002\u6bd4\u5982\u6cd5\u5f8b\u660e\u786e\u7684\u8d77\u8bc9\u548c\u63a7\u544a\u6743\u3002<\/span><\/p>\n

Even when meetings are allowed, they are often monitored by the police, in contradiction with the Lawyers Law\u2019s provision that \u201cmeeting with the suspect or defendant shall not be subject to monitoring\u201d. As a result, it is difficult for the lawyer to provide legal advice or coordinate a legal strategy during these meetings. Again, the Criminal Procedure Law does not offer any legal remedy (in the form of penalties or ability to seek legal redress against public security officials) if monitoring occurs. In addition, there is also no clear prohibition for monitoring of the meeting by video camera. <\/ins>On the contrary, many lawyers who meet with their clients through a lawful way could be arrested<\/ins> by the police because of the revenge.<\/ins> A famous case caused by th<\/ins>is conflict:<\/ins> Li Zhuang, a lawyer from Beijing,<\/ins> met with his criminal defendant in Chongqing, unfortunately, he was sent to the prison<\/ins> for one and a half year because of the charge of coaxing the client<\/ins> to change his testimony.<\/ins><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

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 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

http:\/\/blog.sina.com.cn\/s\/blog_6b804b510101ixf9.html<\/a><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

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